لخّصلي

The Environment and Moral Virtue Normative ethics can be divided into two large domains: norms of obligation and norms of value. Norms of obligation specify what is right or wrong to do. Norms of value specify what is good or evil to be or to seek as an end. Thus normative ethics has four moral terms: right and wrong, good and evil. Norms of obligation specify what is right or wrong to do. These norms are called norms of obligation because they tell us what our moral obligations and duties are. There is a wide range of ethical theories that have been developed across the centuries that take different approaches to determining obligation. The oft discussed Utilitarianism and Kantian formalism are two frequently cited and discussed examples of theories that specify methods to arrive at obligation. A moral dilemma occurs when there is a conflict of norms of value or norms of obligation. For this section of the Code, however, we must look at norms of value, the other domain of normative ethics. Norms of value specify what is good or evil in persons as moral agents or what we are to seek as ends. Technically those norms that specify what we are to be are norms of moral value and are called virtues. Virtues are habits of character that predispose us to do what is right. They should not be confused

with traits of personality. Immediately it becomes evident that virtue and obligation are related. Obligation tells us what our ethical duties are and virtue enables us to meet those obligations. The fact that they can be habituated- learned and practiced-is important. The opposite of virtues, that is what we ought not to be, are called vices. Virtues are universal, meaning that they are norms for all people. Virtues answer the question "What is a 'good' person in a moral sense?" Virtues include such things as justice, humility, temperance, generosity, prudence, and courage. (Vices, incidentally, would include gluttony. avarice, greed, lust, pride, and sloth.) There is a subset of virtues, called excellences, that are habits of character that predispose a person to do a specific job or task well. Excellences answer the question "What is a 'good' nurse in a moral sense?" Excellences would include knowledge, skill, wisdom, patience, compassion, caring, kindness, and integrity. Today they are often named or included when discussing virtues. Nurses do not come to the work setting tabula rasa. The virtues and values that they possess have been shaped by many things including family and friends, education, spiritual or religious communities, voluntary associations such as civic clubs, and life experience. Some of these virtues and values will have a natural fit with nursing and will be further developed within the context of nursing education and practice. What is good or evil in the ends that we seek are sometimes referred to by their Greek name telos (singular) or teloi (plural) in the ethical literature. The ends/teloi that nursing seeks include such things as health, well-being, dignity, care, respect, mercy, and justice. Some ends, such as human dignity, are intrinsic goods; they are good in themselves and should be sought for their own sake. Other ends are instrumental goods that are sought so that other goods might be realized. For example, health can be considered an instrumental good because it allows persons to reach other ends such as productivity, fulfillment, and satisfaction.35 Interpretive Statement 6.1 is chiefly concerned with virtue. Virtues, as learned habits of character, are formed, cultivated, maintained, and flourish when the moral environment models and fosters them. For example, for honesty to flourish in nursing studies or in clinical practice or in research, there must be an expectation of honesty, and an intolerance of dishonesty in any form. Transparency becomes an important element in the process, whether in grading, hiring or employment practices, or data analysis. Other elements that must be operative within an environment that fosters virtue include respect and dignity so that people are and feel valued; communication and moral equality so that all persons participate in the community of moral discourse, and generosity so that the diverse contributions of members of the team, class, committee, or group are welcome and recognized. These are but a few; there are, of course, other elements of a moral milieu that can cause virtues to flourish .