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Space (Descartes) - Space and matter (material substance) are one and the same thing.Analytic works with "true forms of consequences in argument", which become faulty by variation and deflection. The complete doctrine of detection of fallacies, according to Bacon, contains three segments: 1. Sophistical fallacies, 2. Fallacies of interpretation, and 3. False appearances or Idols. Concerning (1) Bacon praises Aristotle for his excellent handling of the matter, but he also mentions Plato honorably, Fallacies of interpretation (2) refer to "Adventitious Conditions or Adjuncts of Essences", similar to the predicaments, open to physical or logical inquiry, He focuses his attention on the logical handling when he relates the detection of fallacies of interpretation to the wrong use of common and general notions, which leads to sophisms.In the last section (3) Bacon finds a place for his idols, when he refers to the detection of false appearances as "the deepest fallacies of the human mind: For they do not deceive in particulars, as the others do, by clouding and snaring the judgment; but by a corrupt and ill-ordered predisposition of mind, which as it were perverts and infects all the anticipations of the intellect". Idols are productions of the human imagination (caused by the crooked mirror of the human mind) and thus are nothing more than "untested generalities".The basic works Descartes: "Reasonings on a method", "Beginnings of philosophy" and others. The philosophy for Descartes is a basis of all sciences, in which base is metaphysic. He wrote, that all philosophy is similar to a tree, which roots - metaphysic, trunk - physics, and branch - all other sciences, main of which medicine, mechanics and ethics. The practical method Descartes consists in transition from the general to the particular and refers to as deduction. He is author great words: <<I think, hence, I exist" (Cogito, ergo sum).Develops Bacon's new method for scientific investigation, the Novum Organum, equipping the intellect to pass beyond ancient arts and thus producing a radical revision of the methods of knowledge; but it also introduces a new epistemology and a new ontology.In Redargutio Philosophiarum Bacon reflects on his method, but he also criticizes prejudices and false opinions, especially the system of speculation established by theologians, as an obstacle to the progress of science, together with any authoritarian stance in scholarly matters.To the present day Bacon is well known for his treatises on empiricist natural philosophy (The Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum Scientiarum) and for his doctrine of the idols, which he put forward in his early writings, as well as for the idea of a modern research institute, which he described in Nova Atlantis.As a lawyer, member of Parliament, and Queen's Counsel, Bacon wrote on questions of law, state and religion, as well as on contemporary politics; but he also published texts in which he speculated on possible conceptions of society, and he pondered questions of ethics (Essays) even in his works on natural philosophy, After his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge and Gray's Inn, London, Bacon did not take up a post at a university, but instead tried to start a political career.As early as Temporis partus masculus, Bacon warns the student of empirical science not to tackle the complexities of his subject without purging the mind of its idols: "On waxen tablets you cannot write anything new until you rub out the old. With the mind it is not so; there you cannot rub out the old till you have written in the new".Bacon's international fame and influence spread during his last years, when he was able to focus his energies exclusively on his philosophical work, and even more so after his death, when English scientists of the Boyle circle (Invisible College) took up his idea of a cooperative research institution in their plans and preparations for establishing the Royal Society.Bacon calls his new art Interpretatio Naturae, which is a logic of research going beyond ordinary logic, since his science aims at three inventions: of arts (not arguments), of principles (not of things in accordance to principles), and of designations and directions for works (not of probable reasons).Space is the volume physical things take up Study material Since the 15th century modern philosophy has been marked by a continuing interaction between systems of thought based on a mechanistic, materialistic interpretation of the universe and those founded on a belief in human thought as the only ultimate reality.The medieval view of the world as a hierarchical order of beings created and governed by God was supplanted by the mechanistic picture of the world as a vast machine, the parts of which move in accordance with strict physical laws, without purpose or will.Theory of the Idols and the System of Sciences The Idols Bacon's doctrine of the idols not only represents a stage in the history of theories of error but also functions as an important theoretical element within the rise of modern empiricism.In his Preface to the Novum Organum Bacon promises the introduction of a new method, which will restore the senses to their former rank, begin the whole labor of the mind again, and open two sources and two distributions of learning.They hoped to escape the epistemological confines of the mind by constructing knowledge of the external world, the self, the soul, God, ethics, and science out of the simplest, indubitable ideas possessed innately by the mind.The explorations of the world; the Reformation, with its emphasis on individual faith; the rise of commercial urban society; and the dramatic appearance of new ideas in all areas of culture stimulated the development of a new philosophical world view.Political institutions and ethical principles ceased to be regarded as reflections of divine command and came to be seen as practical devices created by humans.This interaction has reflected the increasing effect of scientific discovery and political change on philosophical speculation.

Space (Descartes) - Space and matter (material substance) are one and the same thing. Anything
that occupies space is extended and that extension is space. Space is the volume physical things
take up
Study material
Since the 15th century modern philosophy has been marked by a continuing
interaction between systems of thought based on a mechanistic, materialistic
interpretation of the universe and those founded on a belief in human thought as
the only ultimate reality. This interaction has reflected the increasing effect of
scientific discovery and political change on philosophical speculation.
The 15th and 16th centuries constituted a period of radical social, political,
and intellectual developments. The explorations of the world; the Reformation,
with its emphasis on individual faith; the rise of commercial urban society; and the
dramatic appearance of new ideas in all areas of culture stimulated the
development of a new philosophical world view. The medieval view of the world
as a hierarchical order of beings created and governed by God was supplanted by
the mechanistic picture of the world as a vast machine, the parts of which move in
accordance with strict physical laws, without purpose or will. The aim of human
life was no longer conceived as preparation for salvation in the next world, but
rather as the satisfaction of people's natural desires. Political institutions and
ethical principles ceased to be regarded as reflections of divine command and came
to be seen as practical devices created by humans. In this new philosophical view,
experience and reason became the sole standards of truth.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was one of the leading figures in natural philosophy and in the field
of scientific methodology in the period of transition from the Renaissance to the early modern
era. As a lawyer, member of Parliament, and Queen's Counsel, Bacon wrote on questions of law,
state and religion, as well as on contemporary politics; but he also published texts in which he
speculated on possible conceptions of society, and he pondered questions of ethics (Essays) even
in his works on natural philosophy, After his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge and Gray's
Inn, London, Bacon did not take up a post at a university, but instead tried to start a political
career. Although his efforts were not crowned with success during the era of Queen Elizabeth,
under James I he rose to the highest political office, Lord Chancellor.
Bacon's international fame and influence spread during his last years, when he was able to focus
his energies exclusively on his philosophical work, and even more so after his death, when
English scientists of the Boyle circle (Invisible College) took up his idea of a cooperative
research institution in their plans and preparations for establishing the Royal Society. To the
present day Bacon is well known for his treatises on empiricist natural philosophy (The
Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum Scientiarum) and for his doctrine of the idols,
which he put forward in his early writings, as well as for the idea of a modern research institute,
which he described in Nova Atlantis.
Theory of the Idols and the System of Sciences
The Idols Bacon's doctrine of the idols not only represents a stage in the history of theories of
error but also functions as an important theoretical element within the rise of modern empiricism.
According to Bacon, the human mind is not a tabula rasa. Instead of an ideal plane for receiving
an image of the world in toto, it is a crooked mirror, on account of implicit distortions. He does
not sketch a basic epistemology but underlines that the images in our mind right from the
beginning do not render an objective picture of the true objects. Consequently, we have to
improve our mind, i.e., free it from the idols, before we start any knowledge acquisition. As early
as Temporis partus masculus, Bacon warns the student of empirical science not to tackle the
complexities of his subject without purging the mind of its idols: "On waxen tablets you cannot
write anything new until you rub out the old. With the mind it is not so; there you cannot rub out
the old till you have written in the new".
In Redargutio Philosophiarum Bacon reflects on his method, but he also criticizes prejudices and
false opinions, especially the system of speculation established by theologians, as an obstacle to
the progress of science, together with any authoritarian stance in scholarly matters. Bacon deals
with the idols in the Second Book of The Advancement of Learning, where he discusses Arts
intellectual (Invention, Judgment, Memory, and Tradition). Bacon deals here with the art of
judgment in order to assign a systematic position to the idols. Within this art he distinguishes the
"Analytic" from the detection of fallacies (sophistical syllogisms). Analytic works with "true
forms of consequences in argument", which become faulty by variation and deflection.
The complete doctrine of detection of fallacies, according to Bacon, contains three segments: 1.
Sophistical fallacies, 2. Fallacies of interpretation, and 3. False appearances or Idols. Concerning
(1) Bacon praises Aristotle for his excellent handling of the matter, but he also mentions Plato
honorably, Fallacies of interpretation (2) refer to "Adventitious Conditions or Adjuncts of
Essences", similar to the predicaments, open to physical or logical inquiry, He focuses his
attention on the logical handling when he relates the detection of fallacies of interpretation to the
wrong use of common and general notions, which leads to sophisms. In the last section (3)
Bacon finds a place for his idols, when he refers to the detection of false appearances as "the
deepest fallacies of the human mind: For they do not deceive in particulars, as the others do, by
clouding and snaring the judgment; but by a corrupt and ill-ordered predisposition of mind,
which as it were perverts and infects all the anticipations of the intellect". Idols are productions
of the human imagination (caused by the crooked mirror of the human mind) and thus are
nothing more than "untested generalities". In his Preface to the Novum Organum Bacon
promises the introduction of a new method, which will restore the senses to their former rank,
begin the whole labor of the mind again, and open two sources and two distributions of learning.
consisting of a method of cultivating the sciences and another of discovering them. This new
beginning presupposes the discovery of the natural obstacles to efficient scientific analysis,
namely seeing through the idols, so that the mind's function as the subject of knowledge
acquisition comes into focus. Develops Bacon's new method for scientific investigation, the
Novum Organum, equipping the intellect to pass beyond ancient arts and thus producing a
radical revision of the methods of knowledge; but it also introduces a new epistemology and a
new ontology. Bacon calls his new art Interpretatio Naturae, which is a logic of research going
beyond ordinary logic, since his science aims at three inventions: of arts (not arguments), of
principles (not of things in accordance to principles), and of designations and directions for
works (not of probable reasons). The effect Bacon looks for is to command nature in action, not
to overcome an opponent in argument. Bacon dealt with his scientific method, which became
famous under the name of induction.
Descartes (1596-1650) one of the known philosophers of the seventeenth century, founder
rationalism. He was mathematic and philosopher. Descartes aspired to reconsider the last
traditions, but as against Bacon addressed not to experience, and to reason. The basic works
Descartes: "Reasonings on a method", "Beginnings of philosophy" and others. The philosophy
for Descartes is a basis of all sciences, in which base is metaphysic. He wrote, that all philosophy
is similar to a tree, which roots - metaphysic, trunk - physics, and branch - all other sciences,
main of which medicine, mechanics and ethics. The practical method Descartes consists in
transition from the general to the particular and refers to as deduction. He is author great words:
«I think, hence, I exist" (Cogito, ergo sum).
Knowledge agrees Descartes has any characteristics: (a) must be certain; (b) must be objectively
real; and (c) muust be necessary, impossible to doubt (if denied, a contradiction ensues).
Knowledge is possible only on condition that there is something (or that there are some things)
about which we can never be wrong. All knowledge is derived by a deductive process similar to
that in axiomatic geometry from this primitive and absolutely infallible truth.
The Rationalists, principally Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz, approached
the problems of human knowledge from another angle. They hoped to escape the
epistemological confines of the mind by constructing knowledge of the external
world, the self, the soul, God, ethics, and science out of the simplest, indubitable
ideas possessed innately by the mind. Leibniz in particular, thought that the world
was knowable a priori, through an analysis of ideas and derivations done through
logic. Supersensible knowledge, the Rationalists argued, can be achieved by means
of reason. Descartes believed that certain truths, that "if I am thinking, I exist," for
example, are invulnerable to the most pernicious skepticism. Armed with the
knowledge of his own existence, Descartes hoped to build a foundation for all
knowledge.
Matter (material substance, body) has the essential attribute of extension, which undergoes
sensible change. Matter fills all space (there is no empty space in the universe) and is
incompressible. All properties of matter are quantifiable modes of extension that are a necessary
part of our conception of any existing material object. These modes are: (a) duration (to
conceive of, a material thing is to conceive of it as continuing to exist from one moment in time
to another moment in time), and (b) time as a measure of that duration. Our conception of
material substance is not in any way derived from our senses but is a product of the ideas of our
reason (as are God and mind).
Descartes' method of doubt. The first of four rules presented by Descartes in Part II of his
Discourse on Method contains the most succinct formation of his method of doubt: Nothing is to
be admitted as true unless (a) it is free from all prejudicial judgments, and (b) it is so clearly and
distinctly presented to the mind that in no circumstance can it ever be doubted.
Descartes' method of doubt was to doubt anything and everything until he arrived at something
which could not in any way be doubted by any rational being. (The idea so arrived at would be
indubitably certain and universally true.) From this absolutely certain and true idea one could
then derive in logical fashion other certainties and truths. A system so constructed would be an
organized group of interdependent ideas each consistent with all others and each implying the
others; thus the system would be comprehensive and flawless.
Substance. There are three kinds of substances in Descartes' philosophy: 1. God substance: the
infinite, uncreated Being that depends upon nothing other than itself in order to exist. The
completely perfect Necessary Existence upon which all things depend for their creation and
continued existence. It is etemnal, spiritual, immaterial, immutable, indivisible, not spatial, not
temporal, creator of the universe, creator of all the other kinds of substances and its essence
innately knows to us. 2. Created finite spiritual substance such as the immaterial soul if each
individual. The essence of human spiritual substance is to think and have thoughts. It is not
extended; hence it is intangible, invisible, nonspatial and nontemporal. It occupies and uses
material bodies but is not confined to bodies, since it may enter heaven bodiless. By the pineal
gland at the base of the brain, it interacts with bodies to produce consciousness, mind, ideas,
willing, imagination, etc. Created finite material substance such as bodies, material objects,
matter, the universe. The essence of physical, bodily substance is extension. It occupies space,