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Regular Article Dyslexia and learning in view of the socio-cultural theory and development psychology Osama.o "Peer learning" is an example of a pedagogical model in which stu- dents achieve subject competence together and actively learn with and from each other in both theoretical and practical sections (Hassan, 2014). In this type of learning, the students are responsible for their own learning. As peer learning can stimulate self-directed learning, the problem of reading and writing difficulties can be eased if evaluation take place continuously in order to develop the best learning method over time (via peer learning) that can be considered comfortable for dyslexics. Note, again, that these learning strategies could be designed so that no time pressure occurs during educational activities, because time pressure can reinforce dyslexia symptoms (Skeide, 2022). 4.3. Zone of Proximal Development One of the aspects of learning that the sociocultural learning theory developed is the ZPD (a Zone of Proximal Development) or the closest zone of development (Vygotsky, 1986). This focuses on the opportunity for development that the student can achieve on his or her own, and what he or she can manage with the support of peers or a teacher. In other words, the ZPD can be expressed as the distance between what an individual can perform alone and what he or she can do in collaboration or under the guidance of a more knowledgeable person/tutor. The moment when the student acquires a certain knowledge concept does not denote the end of the development of this operation or of the concept; it is only the beginning. The ZPD is thus intimately connected with the possibilities of learning (Hassan, 2011). Against this back- ground, it is the teacher's role to discover the student's ZPD in order to be able to build on the following steps for future teaching strategies. Artefacts and participation in activities (which were previously reviewed) can thus be adapted according to the specific ZPD of the student with dyslexia. In this context, the teacher can: o structure the tasks so that the time aspect does not become decisive, because students with dyslexia need plenty of time compared with normal students. o support students in identifying the problem and how to solve it, as well as support in the form of cognitive aids/artefacts. o support students in developing independence and self-esteem, for example, through increased involvement in laboratories or discus- sions in groups/seminars. o encourage students to ask questions about the teaching subject if they has difficulty understanding. This includes naive questions or questions that are taken for granted by ordinary students. o plan for several meetings with students with dyslexia during the course to map out the learning level and identify the students' ZPDs, as well as to get feedback on teaching methods. In return, universities must be able to support the teacher with appropriate resources for this. 5. Learning model for problem-solving Within the socio-cultural perspective, the role of the teacher is to guide or supervise students in their journey to acquire knowledge. In this context, a learning model for problem-solving is proposed as shown in 3

Osama.A.B. Hassan Social Sciences & Humanities Open 8 (2023) 100718 problem. What are the reasons that make him or her unable to solve the task? Do these relate to reading comprehension or their own under- standing of the subject? If the student cannot identify the problem on his or her own after many attempts, this must be done with the help of the teacher. Therefore, it is important that the right questions are asked so that the problem becomes well defined and easier to solve. The next step will be to describe the problem and present the possible approaches to achieve a solution. The teacher explores the student's ability to describe the problem and assess whether his or her way of thinking is correctly formed. In the next step, possible solutions are developed using course material and lecture notes. In this learning phase, the solution is generally formulated, not fully described or motivated. Finally, the so- lution will be described in such detail that it is completed. This process may be repeated on a trial-and-error basis until the correct answer is obtained. In the model, it is important that students ask the right questions and have course material with them. To avoid creating stress, the teacher should not press students with dyslexia during the different phases of the model. To increase the students' self-esteem, encourage- ment or a reward in form of bonus evaluation points on the assignment could be planned by the teacher. 6. The developmental psychological theory The sociocultural learning theory means that attention must be directed towards students' abilities and skills in the teaching situation, as well as in the external environment with which students interact. In practice, however, it is the features of both the individual and the environment that interact and influence each other in the long term. In other words, changing factors in the learning environment can consti- tute obstacles or better conditions for students in need of special support efforts, for example students with dyslexia problems. Consequently, the developmental psychology, or Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), can be used to understand how the in- dividual interacts with the environment and how the environment af- fects the individual's continued development. There is, apparently, a common denominator between Bronfenbrenner's theory of develop- mental psychology and the sociocultural learning theory, as they both treat the individual from the perspective of socialization and the fact that human development takes place in interaction with the environ- ment. Furthermore, developmental psychology can provide more detail about how human behaviours, thoughts, feelings and social abilities develop during the life course than sociocultural learning theory can. Nevertheless, the area that developmental psychology theory deals with is comprehensive. For this study, it has been decided to raise some influencing factors that are considered suitable for students with dyslexia problems. 6.1. Microsystems The first level in the ecological system model is the microsystem. A microsystem represents various small systems in society, such as family, preschool, school or work. Three elements can be identified as active in this interaction: (1) The activities an individual participates in; (2) The roles/tasks the individual receives or gives to others; (3) A network of relationships will develop between people that the individual is a part of and that affects the individual's development. These three factors - activities, roles and relationships - define the most important elements of the microsystem. The different roles are important for the individual's development. When an individual's roles change or when the in- dividual's local environment changes, the individual's ecological microsystem changes accordingly. 6.2. How does the microsystem work for students with dyslexia? When students with dyslexia are admitted to university, it is important that there is cooperation and a consensus between the Fig. 1. Learning model for problem-solving. Fig. 1. This model can be used to help solve the learning problem and increase the learning potential for students with dyslexia, especially within the framework of engineering education. The model may be used when supervising students, especially during lessons when a student is stuck on theoretical problems or practising tasks. With the help of the model, the ZPDs of the students participating in problem-solving pro- cesses will be identified and a plan for further learning steps can be formulated based on the outcome of this process. The student starts the problem-solving process by first identifying the 4

Osama.A.B. Hassan university and these students regarding goal setting, standards, and established routines and measures. This can create security for these students. The focus of these students' development must thus be directed towards encouraging and supporting them to become more engaged with the university's social and physical environment. A network of relationships can be developed between students, which can influence their developmental psychology and, over time, establish peer-learning. Additionally, students should be encouraged at the start of the course to contact teaching staff if they have special needs or wishes. Many students with reading and writing difficulties do not know that they can get support. The teacher may tell those who state that they have prob- lems with dyslexia that they can also contact the university's coordi- nator for appropriate support. The teacher may plan several meetings with students with dyslexia problems during the course, in order to investigate their level of learning and get feedback on teaching methods. In return, universities must be able to support the teacher with suitable resources to pave the way to sustainable learning. 6.3. Mesosystem The second level in the ecological systems model is the so-called mesosystem, which is a system of the relationships and activities that develop in the various local environments, and on which the in- dividual's development depends. Relationships that develop between the various local environments can be of decisive importance for an individual's development. The developing potential of a local environ- ment in a mesosystem is greater if, when the individual initially enters the local environment, he or she does so not alone but in the company of one or more people with whom he or she has been together in previous local environments. 6.4. How does the mesosystem work for students with dyslexia? A student's ability to learn effectively depends not only on the teaching, but also on the contact between students in the group via group assignments, study visits and possible opportunities for practice at companies or external institutions. The nature of this contact can be important. One can therefore maintain that the design of group tasks, seminars and collaboration within the study group - as well as study visits and practice - can create some kind of communication network for students. Peer learning can also be designed to serve as a starting point for realizing effective learning. As mentioned earlier, the teacher must be able to support the student in developing independence, for example through increased involvement in laboratories and discussions in groups/seminars. It will be even more stimulating if collaboration be- tween the various local environments is achieved. University, family and rehabilitation centre are examples of these local environments. 6.5. Exosystem The third level in the ecological systems model is the so-called exo- system. An individual's development can also be affected by environ- ments and events that the individual does not have direct contact with (Bronfenbrenner, 2005). In this context, there are formal or informal social institutions that directly or indirectly affect the individual. 6.6. How does the exosystem work for students with dyslexia? Universities have usually included students with special needs in their rules and policies. All universities and colleges are assumed to have specific contact persons and coordinators for those with dyslexia or other learning disabilities. Students with dyslexia must be given the opportunity to coordinate their needs, expectations and wishes, and must be informed about the pedagogical support available in order to carry out their studies without significant impact due to the problem of dyslexia. Students must be able to discuss their study plans and any need Social Sciences & Humanities Open 8 (2023) 100718 for support or adjustments to the study situation with the university's coordinator. These rules and routines can have a great effect on stu- dents' learning development. There are also organizations for people who have dyslexia. These organizations often aim to inform society about what dyslexics need and what support society can contribute, etc. It is thus imperative to achieve some form of collaboration between the university and these organiza- tions. This collaboration can help when developing courses intended specifically for dyslexics, in which the stated goal is to prepare these students to practise strategies to increase reading comprehension and structured thinking and to promote reading and writing learning; see e. g., Winter (1999) and Ekelund (2021). 6.7. Macrosystem The different systems at the first three levels express different ideo- logical, economic, historical and political values and conditions. The fourth level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model consists of institutions at the societal level that affect all the previous systems, such as society, laws, conventions and traditions (Crawford, 2020). For example, centrally made decisions can have negative or positive con- sequences for the family or the individuals. 6.8. How does the macro system work for students with dyslexia? The media, TV, the internet and traditions can influence how in- dividuals behave towards others who have special needs. By applying the principle that everyone has the right to receive an equal education and to develop as far as possible based on their conditions, society at the macro level can create a safe learning environment that includes stu- dents who have dyslexia (or other disabilities). Adapted learning forms and prerequisites can guarantee the realization of the "equal value for all" argument (Sangiovanni, 2017).In actual language use, "literal meaning" takes on a secondary role (Vygotsky, 1986). Instead, the interaction of language with artefacts, such computer programs, and other contextual factors is emphasized (Winter, 1999). This approach could be particularly suitable for those students who have reading and writing difficulties (dyslexia). As mentioned earlier, the diagnosis of dyslexia is often visible when encountering theoretical tasks, while practical tasks work better. Therefore, practical tasks can activate the learning potential and, over time, cognitive development can be further improved. For students with dyslexia, this means emphasizing the practical side of understanding through labs and group work in class. Against this background, the di- dactics in the classroom can be adapted. Below are some suggestions in connection with this point. o Giving students the opportunity to practise on their own can make it easier for dyslexics to get a better understanding of the subject. o As far as possible, teaching a subject should combine theory with practice. There are different ways to implement this in practice, for example with study visits and supervision in the workplace. The "work-integrated learning" model (Schedin & Hassan, 2016) can also be mentioned here, in which practical work experience is integrated with a learning element during ongoing education.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100718 ABSTRACT This study attempts to apply the socio-cultural learning theory together with the developmental psychology theory to create a better insight into how learning and teaching methods can be made more efficient for uni- versity students who have reading and writing difficulties/dyslexia.In addition, persons identified with dyslexia can have problems associated with socio-emotional situations (Livingston et al., 2018) and psychopathological consequences (anxiety disorders) (Scorza et al., 2018), and even psychological difficulties (e.g., depres- sion and anxiety) (Ghisi et al., 2016).A.B. Hassan Department of Science and Technology, Link oping University, 601 74, Norrko ping, Sweden ARTICLEINFO Keywords: Dyslexia Socio-cultural learning theory Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory Teaching methods 1.Pedagogical and didactic methods are derived, based on the sociocultural perspective, Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory and the author's observations as a teacher in the classroom to help minimize the problem of learning for students with dyslexia.It aims to apply the socio-cultural learning theory together with the developmental psychology theory (Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory) to create a better insight into how learning and teaching methods can be made more efficient for university students who have reading and writing difficulties/dyslexia.The content and meth- odology of teaching students tend increasingly to become more stan- dardized and abstract in universities, which can also be problematic for students facing difficulties with reading and writing/dyslexia.As the teachers' pedagogical and didactic competence form an important background for students' learning, it is imperative to optimize the applied learning method to include this sector of students who have different needs and conditions, and who face learning difficulties/disabilities.Learning and the learning environment as dictated by these theories can enable the production of pedagogical and didactic methods to streamline the learning of students with dyslexia within the framework of university education.It must be ensured that texts are clearly copied, with an appropriately large style, wide margins and clear paragraph divisions (Cederquist, 2021; Mortimore, 2008).2.3.4.4.1.1.4.2.

Regular Article
Dyslexia and learning in view of the socio-cultural theory and development psychology
Osama. A.B. Hassan
Department of Science and Technology, Link ̈oping University, 601 74, Norrko ̈ping, Sweden
ARTICLEINFO
Keywords:
Dyslexia
Socio-cultural learning theory Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory Teaching methods

1. Introduction
   University students are characterized by significant heterogeneity in their abilities to acquire knowledge and learn. The content and meth- odology of teaching students tend increasingly to become more stan- dardized and abstract in universities, which can also be problematic for students facing difficulties with reading and writing/dyslexia. Techni- cally, high knowledge requirements at universities and the spread of knowledge in classes contribute to students with dyslexia finding it difficult to keep up with regular teaching. As the teachers’ pedagogical and didactic competence form an important background for students’ learning, it is imperative to optimize the applied learning method to include this sector of students who have different needs and conditions, and who face learning difficulties/disabilities. Many university students with dyslexia therefore need more and better pedagogical support dur- ing their studies.
   Dyslexia is one of most common language-based learning disabilities. Students diagnosed with dyslexia usually experience difficulties with specific language skills such as reading, writing, spelling and pro- nouncing words (Cavalli et al., 2017; Pedersen et al., 2016). Conse- quently, a dyslexic person needs further learning assistance during their university education. In addition, persons identified with dyslexia can have problems associated with socio-emotional situations (Livingston et al., 2018) and psychopathological consequences (anxiety disorders) (Scorza et al., 2018), and even psychological difficulties (e.g., depres- sion and anxiety) (Ghisi et al., 2016). Moreover, some psychological and
   E-mail address: [email protected].
   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100718
   ABSTRACT
   This study attempts to apply the socio-cultural learning theory together with the developmental psychology theory to create a better insight into how learning and teaching methods can be made more efficient for uni- versity students who have reading and writing difficulties/dyslexia. Pedagogical and didactic methods are derived, based on the sociocultural perspective, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory and the author’s observations as a teacher in the classroom to help minimize the problem of learning for students with dyslexia. Learning and the learning environment as dictated by these theories can enable the production of pedagogical and didactic methods to streamline the learning of students with dyslexia within the framework of university education.
   emotional factors can have an influence on the choice of students with dyslexia regarding university education (Dontano et al., 2022; Bruns- wick & Bargary, 2022). All these problems can significantly affect the student’s educational achievement at university. Further state-of-the-art studies on the problem of dyslexia can be found in Lithari (2019) and Donato et al. (2022).
   However, this article attempts to study the problem from a different perspective. It aims to apply the socio-cultural learning theory together with the developmental psychology theory (Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory) to create a better insight into how learning and teaching methods can be made more efficient for university students who have reading and writing difficulties/dyslexia. Against this background, the study proposes some pedagogical and didactic strategies, based on the author’s observations as a teacher in the classroom. These two specific theories have been chosen for this study due to the area of interest these two theories deal with. Both theories focus on the interaction between individual and environment, and this seems to be of great importance for learning development in students who suffer from dyslexia. Further- more, with the help of these two theories, the teacher/tutor can develop pedagogical and didactic methods to take measures to make learning more be efficient within the framework of university education. To the best of the author’s knowledge, the subject of this study has not been specifically investigated previously and this study can be categorized within the framework of applied pedagogy of university education.
   Based on the author’s observations, and in view of the socialization perspective, many of those students who suffer from dyslexia feel that
   Received 25 May 2023; Received in revised form 12 October 2023; Accepted 12 October 2023
   Available online 22 October 2023
   2590-2911/© 2023 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Osama.A.B. Hassan
they are passive in class and therefore need more attention than others to encourage them to participate in class and outside of class with other students. This observation is also noted in previous studies; see e.g., Riddick et al. (1999).
Support in the form of increased motivation and understanding, individualization (training is applied according to the individual’s needs), conversations, communication on a continuous basis and adapted forms of teaching should be an important tool. These students also need confirmation and motivational efforts to reduce their low self- esteem, anxiety and frustration that can be associated with the learning process in the classroom. If they do not receive adapted pedagogical support and help during their education, they will run a great risk of not performing at the same level as other students in their subsequent studies.
2. What symptoms characterize the problem of dyslexia?
The diagnosis of dyslexia often becomes visible in school-related situations, for example when dealing with theoretical tasks such as reading and writing, while practical tasks work better (Skeide, 2022). It is worth mentioning here that people with dyslexia have a wide spec- trum of how difficult the degree of dyslexia can be, and a deeper study could therefore be developed to plan for the most appropriate learning strategy that applies to each individual category.
In general, there are certain symptoms that are common to students who have dyslexia. Note, however, that the problem can manifest itself differently depending on the student’s developmental stage (Mortimore, 2008; Reid, 2005). Below are the common symptoms that characterize the problem of dyslexia.
• Reading is slower for a student with dyslexia than for others, because time is spent analysing the assignment’s content.
• Students with dyslexia may have difficulty getting started with writing tasks and difficulty structuring a text. The spelling of com- pound and long words can be difficult to remember.
• Students with dyslexia sometimes skip sentences when writing or structuring the solution or answer to exam questions.
• If group assignments involve reading texts with short preparation time, a student with dyslexia can easily find this a stressful situation, which leads to anxiety and reduced security and focus.
• If exams require reading and interpreting large amounts of text under time pressure, stress can be created or amplified, causing a loss of focus and self-esteem. This stress under time pressure can reinforce dyslexia, even if the student then gets help from the teacher.
Against this background, the pedagogical and didactic planning can be carried out to optimize the learning process so that the problem of reading and writing difficulties/dyslexia can be minimized.
3. Limitations of the study
For the present study, only the sociocultural perspective of learning is considered. With respect to the theory of development psychology, only the ecological system theory of Bronfenbrenner is considered. The phonological deficits experienced typically by students with dyslexia are not investigated.
4. The sociocultural learning theory
The cultural history school represented by Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1986) forms the basis for the socio-cultural perspective of learning. In this perspective, the individual is seen as both a cultural-historical and a biological being, in that intellectual development is produced over time through socialization with other people. Learning can thus be created within a socio-cultural perspective as an interaction between individual and society. The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the use of tools,
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 8 (2023) 100718
both practical and intellectual, which – together with social interaction – pave the way for the social culture that constitutes the environment. In this context, three basic concepts that underlie the sociocultural school can be distinguished:
4.1. Mediation
This means that people are not in direct, uninterpreted contact with the outside world. On the contrary, this contact is handled with the help of various physical and intellectual tools that form integral parts of our social practices (Hassan, 2011). At the same time, the mediating tools influence our thinking. Against this background, learning can be considered to be a very dynamic process. Physical and intellectual/lin- guistic tools mediate existence; that is, they help people understand and manage their existence. Learning in the individual is therefore depen- dent on the ability to absorb these tools and use them.
Mediation means that knowledge is first transferred through a tool, for example an artefact, and then internalized within the person to become their own knowledge. Artefacts are therefore important for our understanding of reality and our surroundings.
4.1.1. Artefacts
Artefacts are the tools used in teaching to facilitate learning. What would be classified as an artefact varies, but mainly depends on the student’s learning needs. Students with dyslexia may have different needs and wishes, depending on their level of acquired knowledge through learning. For some, it is important to have compensatory sup- port during the entire period of study (Cederquist, 2021; Mortimore, 2008), while others need support occasionally. Compensatory support means that the teacher must be able to compensate for differences in students’ abilities to assimilate the education. Such support measures can be in the form of adapted technical aids. Therefore, it is important that teachers hold continuous discussions with these students to work out (or design for) the best method to optimize and deliver learning.
According to Vygotsky (1986), when the teacher teaches students, he or she uses language, aids and writing on the blackboard as artefacts of mediation. These artefacts are therefore considered important for in- dividuals’ understanding of reality and their surroundings.
The question that then arises is how the teacher can take advantage of artefacts to effectively alleviate the problem of dyslexia. Two types of artefacts may be relevant for the case of dyslexia, based on the author’s experience as a teacher. These are intellectual artefacts and digital ar- tefacts. In this context, the teacher may:
• produced pre-recorded videos of lectures/lessons. As the intellectual artefacts are about language, according to the socio-cultural learning theory (Vygotsky, 1986) it is therefore important to use simple lan- guage with careful explanation of the subject matter and at a reduced pace. This applies to both classroom lectures and recorded lectures.
• write compendiums and articles that explain in simple language difficult-to-understand texts typically found in the course literature. This appears to be especially important for engineering students. It must be ensured that texts are clearly copied, with an appropriately large style, wide margins and clear paragraph divisions (Cederquist, 2021; Mortimore, 2008).
• connect teaching to reality. Although this may apply to all students (without disabilities), for students with dyslexia this teaching method seems to be important because the subject can be more easily understood without resorting to abstract theoretical assumptions (Lithari, 2019; Skeide, 2022).
• post compendiums and other written material on the course’s web- site in plenty of time to reduce time pressure when preparing (or reading) before the lecture.
• hand out notes, transparencies and presentations which will be used in the lecture room later on, to minimize possible time pressure during the lecture.
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Osama.A.B. Hassan
• use reliable internet resources (if necessary).
• ensure that information about the university library’s support for
students with reading disabilities is available on the university
library’s website.
• provide information about current literature lists in good time.
As the role of the teacher is to transfer knowledge through artefacts within the framework of the learning process, it is thus important that these artefacts are continuously evaluated by students with dyslexia (preferably at every lecture). Evaluation can take place verbally or in writing, and every individual comment must be considered for the implementation of quality improvement/control of study courses. The evaluation need not to be anonymous, since students with dyslexia can show a wide spectrum in their learning abilities (Shaywitz, 2020). The evaluation of artefacts aims to optimize their design in accordance with the needs of these students.
According to the sociocultural learning theory, students can ask, tell and exchange information with each other in the classroom and in groups. Through communication with each other, individuals become involved in the possession of knowledge and skills (Hassan, 2011). Digital artefacts should, therefore, be designed to improve the learning process. At the same time, direct teaching, supervision and other forms of instruction play an important role. Ekelund (2021) and Shaywitz (2020) have presented some practical digital learning tools that are suitable for dyslexics in school. It would be good to develop similar digital learning tools adapted for dyslexics at university.
4.2. Participation in activities
In a socio-cultural perspective, interaction with the surrounding environment is crucial for development and learning (Vygotsky, 1986). Learning takes place primarily through participation in activities, and secondarily through teaching in which knowledge can be created using the mediating tools. Against this background, a problem-solving method is advocated that allows the course participants to actively experiment and reflect (see also section 4 of this article). The conversation between students and observing other viewpoints and comments about the sub- ject is, thus, an important part. Through communication with others in the group, students learn to understand the various tools for problem-solving and the meaning and area of use of the tools within the framework of the taught subject. The communication between students can form the framework for ideas, concepts, skills and attitudes. In actual language use, “literal meaning” takes on a secondary role (Vygotsky, 1986). Instead, the interaction of language with artefacts, such computer programs, and other contextual factors is emphasized (Winter, 1999). This approach could be particularly suitable for those students who have reading and writing difficulties (dyslexia). As mentioned earlier, the diagnosis of dyslexia is often visible when encountering theoretical tasks, while practical tasks work better. Therefore, practical tasks can activate the learning potential and, over time, cognitive development can be further improved. For students with dyslexia, this means emphasizing the practical side of understanding through labs and group work in class. Against this background, the di- dactics in the classroom can be adapted. Below are some suggestions in connection with this point.
• Giving students the opportunity to practise on their own can make it easier for dyslexics to get a better understanding of the subject.
• As far as possible, teaching a subject should combine theory with practice. There are different ways to implement this in practice, for example with study visits and supervision in the workplace. The “work-integrated learning” model (Schedin & Hassan, 2016) can also be mentioned here, in which practical work experience is integrated with a learning element during ongoing education. Another type of combined practice and theory that can be applied in this context is work-based education (WBE), usually offered in educational
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 8 (2023) 100718
programmes for teacher training. During WBE, student will be able to practise their theoretical knowledge and develop their ability to plan, implement and evaluate teaching with the support of a WBE supervisor.
• Activities (individually or in groups) should be planned so that they accommodate regular breaks or pauses. It is extremely important for dyslexics to be able to have breaks during ongoing learning sessions (Moritime, 1986; Shaywitz, 2020). Tasks that including simulta- neous processing and discussion of texts can make it difficult for a student with dyslexia to finish the task/assignment in time.
• “Peer learning” is an example of a pedagogical model in which stu- dents achieve subject competence together and actively learn with and from each other in both theoretical and practical sections (Hassan, 2014). In this type of learning, the students are responsible for their own learning. As peer learning can stimulate self-directed learning, the problem of reading and writing difficulties can be eased if evaluation take place continuously in order to develop the best learning method over time (via peer learning) that can be considered comfortable for dyslexics.
Note, again, that these learning strategies could be designed so that no time pressure occurs during educational activities, because time pressure can reinforce dyslexia symptoms (Skeide, 2022).
4.3. Zone of Proximal Development
One of the aspects of learning that the sociocultural learning theory developed is the ZPD (a Zone of Proximal Development) or the closest zone of development (Vygotsky, 1986). This focuses on the opportunity for development that the student can achieve on his or her own, and what he or she can manage with the support of peers or a teacher. In other words, the ZPD can be expressed as the distance between what an individual can perform alone and what he or she can do in collaboration or under the guidance of a more knowledgeable person/tutor. The moment when the student acquires a certain knowledge concept does not denote the end of the development of this operation or of the concept; it is only the beginning. The ZPD is thus intimately connected with the possibilities of learning (Hassan, 2011). Against this back- ground, it is the teacher’s role to discover the student’s ZPD in order to be able to build on the following steps for future teaching strategies. Artefacts and participation in activities (which were previously reviewed) can thus be adapted according to the specific ZPD of the student with dyslexia. In this context, the teacher can:
• structure the tasks so that the time aspect does not become decisive, because students with dyslexia need plenty of time compared with normal students.
• support students in identifying the problem and how to solve it, as well as support in the form of cognitive aids/artefacts.
• support students in developing independence and self-esteem, for example, through increased involvement in laboratories or discus- sions in groups/seminars.
• encourage students to ask questions about the teaching subject if they has difficulty understanding. This includes naive questions or questions that are taken for granted by ordinary students.
• plan for several meetings with students with dyslexia during the course to map out the learning level and identify the students’ ZPDs, as well as to get feedback on teaching methods. In return, universities must be able to support the teacher with appropriate resources for this.
5. Learning model for problem-solving
Within the socio-cultural perspective, the role of the teacher is to guide or supervise students in their journey to acquire knowledge. In this context, a learning model for problem-solving is proposed as shown in
3

Osama.A.B. Hassan
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 8 (2023) 100718
problem. What are the reasons that make him or her unable to solve the task? Do these relate to reading comprehension or their own under- standing of the subject? If the student cannot identify the problem on his or her own after many attempts, this must be done with the help of the teacher. Therefore, it is important that the right questions are asked so that the problem becomes well defined and easier to solve. The next step will be to describe the problem and present the possible approaches to achieve a solution. The teacher explores the student’s ability to describe the problem and assess whether his or her way of thinking is correctly formed. In the next step, possible solutions are developed using course material and lecture notes. In this learning phase, the solution is generally formulated, not fully described or motivated. Finally, the so- lution will be described in such detail that it is completed. This process may be repeated on a trial-and-error basis until the correct answer is obtained. In the model, it is important that students ask the right questions and have course material with them. To avoid creating stress, the teacher should not press students with dyslexia during the different phases of the model. To increase the students’ self-esteem, encourage- ment or a reward in form of bonus evaluation points on the assignment could be planned by the teacher.
6. The developmental psychological theory
The sociocultural learning theory means that attention must be directed towards students’ abilities and skills in the teaching situation, as well as in the external environment with which students interact. In practice, however, it is the features of both the individual and the environment that interact and influence each other in the long term. In other words, changing factors in the learning environment can consti- tute obstacles or better conditions for students in need of special support efforts, for example students with dyslexia problems. Consequently, the developmental psychology, or Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), can be used to understand how the in- dividual interacts with the environment and how the environment af- fects the individual’s continued development. There is, apparently, a common denominator between Bronfenbrenner’s theory of develop- mental psychology and the sociocultural learning theory, as they both treat the individual from the perspective of socialization and the fact that human development takes place in interaction with the environ- ment. Furthermore, developmental psychology can provide more detail about how human behaviours, thoughts, feelings and social abilities develop during the life course than sociocultural learning theory can. Nevertheless, the area that developmental psychology theory deals with is comprehensive. For this study, it has been decided to raise some influencing factors that are considered suitable for students with dyslexia problems.
6.1. Microsystems
The first level in the ecological system model is the microsystem. A microsystem represents various small systems in society, such as family, preschool, school or work. Three elements can be identified as active in this interaction: (1) The activities an individual participates in; (2) The roles/tasks the individual receives or gives to others; (3) A network of relationships will develop between people that the individual is a part of and that affects the individual’s development. These three factors – activities, roles and relationships – define the most important elements of the microsystem. The different roles are important for the individual’s development. When an individual’s roles change or when the in- dividual’s local environment changes, the individual’s ecological microsystem changes accordingly.
6.2. How does the microsystem work for students with dyslexia?
When students with dyslexia are admitted to university, it is important that there is cooperation and a consensus between the
Fig. 1. Learning model for problem-solving.
Fig. 1. This model can be used to help solve the learning problem and increase the learning potential for students with dyslexia, especially within the framework of engineering education. The model may be used when supervising students, especially during lessons when a student is stuck on theoretical problems or practising tasks. With the help of the model, the ZPDs of the students participating in problem-solving pro- cesses will be identified and a plan for further learning steps can be formulated based on the outcome of this process.
The student starts the problem-solving process by first identifying the
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university and these students regarding goal setting, standards, and established routines and measures. This can create security for these students. The focus of these students’ development must thus be directed towards encouraging and supporting them to become more engaged with the university’s social and physical environment. A network of relationships can be developed between students, which can influence their developmental psychology and, over time, establish peer-learning.
Additionally, students should be encouraged at the start of the course to contact teaching staff if they have special needs or wishes. Many students with reading and writing difficulties do not know that they can get support. The teacher may tell those who state that they have prob- lems with dyslexia that they can also contact the university’s coordi- nator for appropriate support. The teacher may plan several meetings with students with dyslexia problems during the course, in order to investigate their level of learning and get feedback on teaching methods. In return, universities must be able to support the teacher with suitable resources to pave the way to sustainable learning.
6.3. Mesosystem
The second level in the ecological systems model is the so-called mesosystem, which is a system of the relationships and activities that develop in the various local environments, and on which the in- dividual’s development depends. Relationships that develop between the various local environments can be of decisive importance for an individual’s development. The developing potential of a local environ- ment in a mesosystem is greater if, when the individual initially enters the local environment, he or she does so not alone but in the company of one or more people with whom he or she has been together in previous local environments.
6.4. How does the mesosystem work for students with dyslexia?
A student’s ability to learn effectively depends not only on the teaching, but also on the contact between students in the group via group assignments, study visits and possible opportunities for practice at companies or external institutions. The nature of this contact can be important. One can therefore maintain that the design of group tasks, seminars and collaboration within the study group – as well as study visits and practice – can create some kind of communication network for students. Peer learning can also be designed to serve as a starting point for realizing effective learning. As mentioned earlier, the teacher must be able to support the student in developing independence, for example through increased involvement in laboratories and discussions in groups/seminars. It will be even more stimulating if collaboration be- tween the various local environments is achieved. University, family and rehabilitation centre are examples of these local environments.
6.5. Exosystem
The third level in the ecological systems model is the so-called exo- system. An individual’s development can also be affected by environ- ments and events that the individual does not have direct contact with (Bronfenbrenner, 2005). In this context, there are formal or informal social institutions that directly or indirectly affect the individual.
6.6. How does the exosystem work for students with dyslexia?
Universities have usually included students with special needs in their rules and policies. All universities and colleges are assumed to have specific contact persons and coordinators for those with dyslexia or other learning disabilities. Students with dyslexia must be given the opportunity to coordinate their needs, expectations and wishes, and must be informed about the pedagogical support available in order to carry out their studies without significant impact due to the problem of dyslexia. Students must be able to discuss their study plans and any need
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for support or adjustments to the study situation with the university’s coordinator. These rules and routines can have a great effect on stu- dents’ learning development.
There are also organizations for people who have dyslexia. These organizations often aim to inform society about what dyslexics need and what support society can contribute, etc. It is thus imperative to achieve some form of collaboration between the university and these organiza- tions. This collaboration can help when developing courses intended specifically for dyslexics, in which the stated goal is to prepare these students to practise strategies to increase reading comprehension and structured thinking and to promote reading and writing learning; see e. g., Winter (1999) and Ekelund (2021).
6.7. Macrosystem
The different systems at the first three levels express different ideo- logical, economic, historical and political values and conditions. The fourth level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model consists of institutions at the societal level that affect all the previous systems, such as society, laws, conventions and traditions (Crawford, 2020). For example, centrally made decisions can have negative or positive con- sequences for the family or the individuals.
6.8. How does the macro system work for students with dyslexia?
The media, TV, the internet and traditions can influence how in- dividuals behave towards others who have special needs. By applying the principle that everyone has the right to receive an equal education and to develop as far as possible based on their conditions, society at the macro level can create a safe learning environment that includes stu- dents who have dyslexia (or other disabilities). Adapted learning forms and prerequisites can guarantee the realization of the “equal value for all” argument (Sangiovanni, 2017). On the other hand, universities usually have adapted examination forms for students with dyslexia. For example, students with dyslexia are offered an extended examination time or other adapted examination forms where possible.
At the macro level, it can be significant to invest in a culture of tolerance that needs to be conveyed in society so that “everyone’s equal value” becomes the decisive factor that can guide the rules and behav- iour of individuals, thereby making it easier for those with different circumstances to feel safe at the same level as others. Different condi- tions include different rules, norms and agreements that may not be understood by others, and this can apply to a group, an ethnicity, a country, a society, a culture or a family. It is important that we become more tolerant, inclusive and non-discriminatory so that students with dyslexia or learning disabilities should not feel that university is an additional source of frustration or isolation. As reported by Riddick et al. (1999), students with dyslexia can have inferior levels of self-esteem and higher levels of anxiety and depression.
Communication and understanding are fundamental for being able to break the boundaries, because – as mentioned earlier – the individual develops through interaction with his or her own environment. Against this background, the macro system seems to be the most influential when it comes to students with dyslexia (or even with other special needs).
7. Concluding remarks
Theories around developmental psychology or educational psy- chology bring out a holistic perspective where society, university and students in class have different roles to play in order to further develop students’ personality, especially students with dyslexia. There is a sim- ilarity between Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory and the so- ciocultural perspective which means that the individual’s education/ development is conditioned by both cultural and social conditions. Learning and the learning environment as dictated by these theories can
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enable the production of pedagogical and didactic methods to stream- line the learning of students with dyslexia within the framework of university education.
In a sociocultural perspective, a learning process should be seen as a systematic collaboration between the teacher and the student. From this point of view, interaction with the environment is crucial for develop- ment and learning. The university has a responsibility to give such students the opportunity to use tools for understanding and learning, as well as to review what is required for any adaptations and aids so that the student can participate as much as possible in their learning activ- ities. In most cases, what makes it easier for students with dyslexia also seems to be good for other students.
Although most students with dyslexia may have already been iden- tified with their specific learning difficulty at the beginning of their schooling and are prepared with the compensation/adaptation skills. However, some university students with dyslexia may still experience some learning difficulties due to the new learning environment. This situation may create a low self-esteem and self-efficacy (Brunswick & Bargary, 2022). In general, it is the university teachers who should be made aware of students with dyslexia who mostly need specific ac- commodation in the teaching and assessment process.
It is important to prioritize adapted examination and assessment forms for students with dyslexia so that they can demonstrate their level of learning in accordance with their needs and conditions. In this context, it is observed that students with dyslexia often skip sentences or a specific solution step when answering exam questions, in the belief that these are taken for granted. Consequently, the examiner may need to keep this in mind when assessing exams.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.