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.In the cervical, lumbar and sacral regions the anterior rami unite near their origins to form large masses of nerve, or plexuses, where nerve fibers are regrouped and rearranged before proceeding to supply skin bones, muscles and joints of a particular area (figure 12.16).The lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves leave the spinal cord near its termination at the level of the first lumbar vertebra, and descend downward inside the vertebral canal forming a structure called cauda equina (horse's tail).A ventral (anterior) and a dorsal (posterior) root unit to form a spinal nerve, which extends outward from the vertebral canal through an intervertebral foramina (figure 12.15, 16).The Nervous System The cervical vertebrae are seven and the cervical spinal nerves are 8 pairs because the first pair leave the vertebral canal between the occipital bone and the atlas and the eight pair leave the vertebral canal between the last cervical and the first thoracic vertebra.This ganglion contains the cell bodies of the sensory nerurons whose dendrities conduct impulses inward from the peripheral body parts.The ventral root (anterior or motor root) of each spinal nerve consists of axons from the motor neurons whose cell bodies are located in the anterior column of grey matter in the spinal cord.Immediately after emerging from the intervertebral foramen each spinal nerve divides into a ramus communicans, a posterior ramus and an anterior ramus.Dura mater LI L1- Cauda equina L2 L2 Lumbar Lumbar L3 L3 vertebrae nerves L4 L4 L5 Sacrum of ??????The posterior rami pass backwards and divide into medial and lateral branches to supply skin and muscles of the posterior aspect head, neck and trunk.The dorsal root (posterior or sensory root) can be identified by an enlargement called the dorsal (posterior) root ganglion (Spinal ganglion) (figure 12.15).Nerve roots Each spinal nerve emerge from the cord by two short branches, or roots, which lie within the vertebral canal.The rami communicans are part of the preganglonic sympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous system.This means that these structures have a nerve supply from more than one spinal nerve 296 Filum terminale S11 s2 S3 Sacral nerves S4 S5 Coccygeal nerve Figure 12.16 Spinal nerves.Each of 31 pairs of spinal nerves exits the spinal cavity from the intervertebral foramina.In the thoracic region the anterior rami do not form plexuses.The anterior rami supply the anterior and lateral aspects of the neck, trunk and the upper and lower limb.Note that after leaving the spinal cavity, many of the spinal nerves interconnect to form networks called plexuses.Cervical vertebrae Cervical plexus Cervical nerves C8 T3 T4 T4 T5 T5 Thoracic T6 T6 Thoracic vertebrae T7 T7 nerves T8 T8 T9 T9 T10 T10 T11- T11 LT12- T12.Thereafter the spinal nerves are given the name and number of the vertebra immediately above.The adult spinal cord ends at the lower border of the first lumbar vertebra (between the first and second lumbar vertebra).The Nervous System and therefore damage to one spinal nerve does not cause loss of functions of a region.The names of the vertebrae are given on the left and the names of the corresponding spinal nerves on the right.po s (i) f p f t?nb?s ??s s snoNaN ???277

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The Nervous System
The cervical vertebrae are seven and the cervical spinal nerves are 8 pairs because the first pair leave the vertebral canal between the occipital bone and the atlas and the eight pair leave the vertebral canal between the last cervical and the first thoracic vertebra. Thereafter the spinal nerves are given the name and number of the vertebra immediately above.
The adult spinal cord ends at the lower border of the first lumbar vertebra (between the first and second lumbar vertebra). The lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves leave the spinal cord near its termination at the level of the first lumbar vertebra, and descend downward inside the vertebral canal forming a structure called cauda equina (horse's tail).
Nerve roots
Each spinal nerve emerge from the cord by two short branches, or roots, which lie within the vertebral canal. The dorsal root (posterior or sensory root) can be identified by an enlargement called the dorsal (posterior) root ganglion (Spinal ganglion) (figure 12.15).
This ganglion contains the cell bodies of the sensory nerurons whose dendrities conduct impulses inward from the peripheral body parts.
The ventral root (anterior or motor root) of each spinal nerve consists of axons from the motor neurons whose cell bodies are located in the anterior column of grey matter in the spinal cord.
A ventral (anterior) and a dorsal (posterior) root unit to form a spinal nerve, which extends outward from the vertebral canal through an intervertebral foramina (figure 12.15, 16).
Immediately after emerging from the intervertebral foramen each spinal nerve divides into a ramus communicans, a posterior ramus and an anterior ramus.
The rami communicans are part of the preganglonic sympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous system.
The Nervous System and therefore damage to one spinal nerve does not cause loss of functions of a region.
In the thoracic region the anterior rami do not form plexuses.
Cervical vertebrae
Cervical
plexus
Cervical
nerves
C8
T3
T4
T4
T5
T5
Thoracic
T6
T6
Thoracic
vertebrae
T7
T7
nerves
T8
T8
T9
T9
T10
T10
T11-
T11
LT12-
T12.
Dura mater
LI
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L2
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Lumbar
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L3
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L4
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The posterior rami pass backwards and divide into medial and lateral branches to supply skin and muscles of the posterior aspect head, neck and trunk.
The anterior rami supply the anterior and lateral aspects of the neck, trunk and the upper and lower limb.
In the cervical, lumbar and sacral regions the anterior rami unite near their origins to form large masses of nerve, or plexuses, where nerve fibers are regrouped and rearranged before proceeding to supply skin bones, muscles and joints of a particular area (figure 12.16). This means that these structures have a nerve supply from more than one spinal nerve
296
Filum terminale
S11
s2
S3 Sacral
nerves
S4
S5
Coccygeal
nerve
Figure 12.16 Spinal nerves. Each of 31 pairs of spinal nerves exits the spinal cavity from the intervertebral foramina. The names of the vertebrae are given on the left and the names of the corresponding spinal nerves on the right. Note that after leaving the spinal cavity, many of the spinal nerves interconnect to form networks called plexuses.
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  Radial N.
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  Radial N. behind humerus
  Axillary (circumflex) N.
  Ulnar N.
  Radial N
  Median NH
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  Ulnar N.
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Figure 12.19 The main nerves of the arm
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The Nervous System
Iliohypogastric N.
Ilioinguinal N.. Genitofemoral N.
Lateral
cutaneous nerve of thigh
Rib 12
Obturator N.
Lumbosacral trunk
Femoral N.
Inguinal ligament
Subcostal N.
Iliohypogastric N.
Geritofemoral N.
llioinguinal N.
Lateral cutaneous
nerve of thigh Femoral N.
Supraclavicular N. C3, 4
Axillary (circumflex) N. C5, 6
Radial N. CS, C
Medial cutaneous N
CB, TI
Supraclavicuar N
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Radial N. C5. 6. 7. 8
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Radial N.
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Ulnar N.
CB, T1 Median N.
C6, 7, 8
Ulnar N CS. T1
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Radial N.
C6, 7, 8
Figure 21.21 The lumbar plexus
The lumbar plexus is formed by the anterior rami of the first three and part of the fourth lumbar nerves. This network of nerves is located in the lumbar region of the back behind the psoas muscle.
The nerves emerge from the lumbar plexus and their nerve roots are (figure 12.23,24)
Iliohypogastric nerve: L1
Ilioinguinal nerve: L1
• Genito femoral:
L1,2
• Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh:
L2,3
Anterior view
Posterior view
Median N. C6, 7, 8
Figure 12.20 The distribution and origins of the cutaneous nerves of the arm.
• Femoral nerve:
L2,3,4
• Obturator nerve: L2, 3,4 ⚫ Lumbosacral trunk: L4, 5
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  Sacral plexus (figure 12.22)
  The sacral plexus is formed by the anterior rami of the fourth and fifth lumbar nerves (L4 and Ls) and the first four sacral nerves (S1 through S4). It is located in the posterior wall of the pelvic cavity.
  The major branches emerging from the sacral plexus supply the muscles and skin of the pelvic floor, muscles surround the hip joint and the pelvic organ.
  The nerves emerge from the sacral plexus and their nerve roots are:
  L4
  The Nervous System
  tibial and common peroneal nerve at the level of the middle of the femur (figure 12.23).
  Tibial nerve-supply the skin and muscles of the posterior aspect of leg.
  Common peroneal nerve divides into deep peroneal (anterior tibial) and the superficial peroneal (musculocutaneous) nerves. They supply the skin and muscles of the anterior aspect of leg, dorsum of the foot and toes.
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  levator ani
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  Tibial N.
  sphincter
  Figure 12.22 Sacral and coccygeal plexuses
  ⚫ Sciatic nerve: L4, 5, S1, 2, 3.
  The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the body. It passes through the greater sciatic notch supplying the muscles of the buttock, the sciatic nerve pass downwards through the posterior aspect of the thigh supplying the hamstring muscles. The sciatic nerve divide to form the
  Sural N.
  Anterior view
  Figure 12.23 The main nerves of the leg.
  Posterior view
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Subcostal N. T12.
Lateral' cutaneous N. of thigh L2, 3
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Lateral cutaneous N. of calf of leg
L5, S1, 2
Superficial peroneal (musculocutaneous) N. L4, 5, S1
Posterior rami L1, 2, 3
Posterior rami S1, 2, 3
Genitofemoral N. L1, 2
Ilioinguinal N.- L1
Saphenous N. L3, 4
Sural N. S1, 2
Deep peroneal N. L4, 5
Tibial N. S1, 2
Iliohypogastric N. L1 Subcostal N. T12
Lateral cutaneous N. of thigh L2, 3
Posterior cutaneous N. S1, 2, 3
Obturator N. L2, 3, 4
Medial cutaneous
-N. of thigh L2, 3
Lateral cutaneous N. of calf
Sural N.
L5, S1, 2
L4, 5, S1 of leg
• Pudendal nerve: S2, 3, 4.
Supplies the external sphincter of the urethra and anal canal and the adjacent skin.
Coccygeal plexus (figure 12.22)
The last sacral spinal nerve (S5) and a few fibers from S4 join the coccygeal nerve to form a small coccygeal plexus. The nerves arise from this plexus supply the coccyx and the muscles of the pelvic floor (levators ani and coccygeus).
Thoracic nerves
The thoracic nerves do not form plexuses. They are 12 pairs, the first 11 pairs are the intercostal nerves and one passes to each intercostal space supply the ribs, the intercostal muscles and overlying skin. The 7th to the 12th thoracic nerves also supply the skin and the muscles of the anterior and posterior abdominal wall.
The 12th pair are the subcostal nerves.
Cranial nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves originating from nuclei in the inferior surface of the brain.
Except for the first pair, which begins within the cerebrum, these nerves originate from the brain stem.
Some of the cranial nerves are sensory, some motor and some
mixed.
Sensory fibers present in the cranial nerves have neuron cell bodies that are outside the brain, usually in groups called ganglia. On the other hand, motor neuron cell bodies are typically located within the grey matter of the brain.
Numbers or names designate the cranial nerves. The numbers indicate the order in which the nerves arise from the front to the back of the brain, and the names describe their primary functions or the general distribution of their fibers. (Figure 13.25).
Their names and number are:
a) x
пол 01
Figure 12.24 Distribution and origins of the cutaneous nerves of the leg.
304
I.
Olfactory: sensory
II.
Optic: sensory.
III.
Oculomtoro: motor
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The Nervous System
The Nervous System
Olfactory nerve endings and nerves
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   II. Optic nerve
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   VII. Facial N.
   VIII. Auditory N.
   IX. Glossopharyngeal N
   X. Vagus N.
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   XII. Hypoglossal N.
   Figure 12.25 Inferiror surface of the brain showing the cranial nerves.
   I.
   Olfactory nerves (sensory)
   The first pair of cranial nerves, the olfactory nerves. These are the nerves of sense of smell.
   The sensory endings and nerve fibers of the olfactory nerves located in the mucous membrane of the upper part of the nasal cavity, serves as olfactory receptor cells. The nerve fibers from these receptors pass upwards through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, carrying impulses to the olflactory neurons in the olfactory tracts, to smell perception area in the temporal lobe of cerebrum. (figure 12.26).
   Inferior
   Superior Middle concha concha
   concha
   Figure 12.26 The olfactory nerve
   II. Optic nerves (sensory)
   The second pair of cranial nerves, the optic nerves. These are the nerves of the sense of sight.
   The sensory nerve endings and nerve fibers of the optic nerve originate in the retina of the eyes and they combine to form the optic nerves, their nerve fibers pass through the optic foramina of the sphenoid bone into the cranial cavity and join at the optic chiasma. (figure 12.27)
   The nerves proceed backwards as the optic tracts to the thalamus. Impulses pass from the thalamus to visual area in the occipital lobe of cerebrum where sight is perceived, and to cerebellum to maintain balance, posture and orientation of the head in space.
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The Nervous System
Macula lutea
The Nervous System
Medial retinae
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Optic nerve
Optic chiasma
Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body
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Circular muscles of the iris which constrict the pupil.
The levator palpebrae muscle which raises the upper eyelid.
IV. Trochlear nerves (motor)
These nerves arise from nerve cells in the midbrain near the cerebral aqueduct. These nerves supply the superior oblique muscles of the eyes.
V. Trigeminal nerves (mixed)
Are the largest cranial nerves and arise from the pons. They are mixed nerves, with the sensory portions more extensive than the motor portions. There are three main branches of the trigeminal nerves: (figure 12.28)
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Figure 12.27 The visual pathway
Visual area in occipital lobe of cerebrum
III. Oculomotor nerves (motor)
These nerves arise from nerve cells near the cerebral aqueduct. They supply:
Four extraocular muscles, which move the eyeball, i.e. the superior, medial and inferior recti and the inferior oblique muscle. Intraocular muscles:
Ciliary muscles which alter the shape of the lens, changing its refractive power.
308
Figure 12.28 The cutaneous distribution of the main branches of the right trigeminal
nerve
The ophthalmic nerves are sensory only, supply the lacrimal glands, conjunctiva of the eyes, eyelids and mucous membrane of
nose.
The maxillary nerves (sensory), supply upper gums, upper teeth, lower eyelids and cheeks.
The mandibular nerves includes both motor and sensory fibers, the largest of the three division, the sensory fibers supply the lower
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The Nervous System
teeth, lower lip and tongue. The motor fibers supply the muscles of mastication.
VI. Abducent nerves (motor)
Arise from nerve cells lying under the floor of the fourth ventricle. These nerves supply the lateral rectus muscles of the eyeballs.
VII. Facial nerves (mixed)
These nerves arise from the lower part of pons. The sensory fibers transmit impulses from the taste bunds in the anterior two-thirds of the tongue to the taste perception area in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The motor fibers supply the muscles of facial expression VIII. Vestibulocochlear (auditory) nerves (sensory)
The Nervous System
The sensory fibers convey impulses from the lining membranes of the above structures to the brain.
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These nerves are composed of two distinguish groups of fibers: cochlear nerves and vestibular nerves.
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The cochlear nerves originate in the corti organ in the inner ear, these nerves transmit impulses to the auditory (hearing) area in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex (sound is perceived). The vestibular nerves, these nerves originate from the semicircular canals n the inner ear and transmit the impulses to the cerebellum. These impulses concerned with the maintenance of posture and equilibrium (balance).
IX. Glossopharyngeal nerves (mixed)
These nerves arise from medulla oblongata.
The motor fibers stimulate the muscles of the tongue and pharynx and the secretory cells of the parotid glands.
The sensory fibers transmit impulses to the cerebral cortex from the posterior third of the tongue, tonsils and pharynx and from taste buds in these parts.
X. Vagus nerves (mixed)
These nerves originate in the medulla oblongata and extend downward through the neck into the chest and abdomen (figure 12.29).
The motor fibers supply the smooth muscles and secretory glands in most organs in the thorax and abdomen, e.g, larynx, trachea, pharynx, esophagus, heart, stomach, small and large intestine, pancreas, kidney, and blood vessels in the thorax and abdomen.
Oesophagus
Cardiac
plexus
Right
bronchus
Arch of aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Right. pulmonary artery
Diaphragm.
Heart
Stomach
Figure 12.29 The position of the vagus nerve in the thorax viewed from the side. XI. Accessory nerves (motor)
These nerves originate in the medulla oblongata and in the spinal cord, thus they have both cranial and spinal branches. The fibers of the accessory nerves supply two muscles, the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
XII. Hypoglossal nerves (motor)
These nerves arise from the medulla oblongata. The fibers of hypoglossal nerves supply the muscle that move the tongue in speaking, chewing and swallowing.
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hi
I ATERAL CHAIN
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cervical
STRUCTURES
Superior
ins ruscie
Blood vessels i
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EFFECTS OF STIMULATION
Pupil crated Slightly relaxed
Constncled
Secration inhibited
Mucus secretion inhibited
Salvary glands
Cral and nasal mucosa
อ.nons
Skeletal cod vessels Heart
Dilated
Cucluc gang.son
Co:cnary arter:as
SE
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Trachea and bronchi
Stomach
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Adrenal medula
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ganglion
Large and small intestine
Kidney Bladder
Sex organs and genitalia
Rale and force of contraction increased Dilated
Sight vasoconstriction
Peristalsis reduced
Sphincters closed
Peristalsis and tone decreased Vasoconstriction
Glycogen glucose conversion increased Contracted
Adrenalin and noradrenalin
Secretion increased
Motility reduced
Sphincters closed
Urine secretion decreased
Wail relax.d Sphincter closed Generally blood vessels constricted
Figure 12.30 The sympathetic outflow, the main structures supplied and the effects of stimulation solid lines-preganglionic fibers; broken lines-postganglionic fibers.
Parasympathetic Division
The other name for the parasympathetic division is the craniosacral division. The cell bodies of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are in the brain stem and the sacral segments of the spinal cord. Their axons are in cranial nerve pairs 3,7,9, and 10 and in some sacral nerves and extend to the parasympathetic ganglia. These ganglia are very close to or actually in the visceral effector (figure 12.31) and contain the postganglionic cell bodies, with very short axons to the cells of the effector.
The Nervous System
In the parasympathetic division, one preganglionic neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons to only one effector.
Notice that when an organ receives both sympathetic and parasympathetic impulses, the responses are opposites. Notice also that some visceral effectors receive only sympathetic impulses. In such cases, the opposite response is brought about a decrease in sympathetic impulses.
The functions of the autonomic division are mixed; that is, each activates some organs and inhibits others. However, the divisions have important functional differences. The sympathetic division prepares the body for energy-expending, stressful, or emergency situations, as part of the fight or flight response. Conversely, the parasympathetic division is most active under ordinary, restful conditions. It also counterbalances the effects of the sympathetic division and restores the body to a resting state following a stressful experience. For example, during an emergency, the sympathetic division increases heart and breathing rates; following the emergency, the parasympathetic division decreases these activities.
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Coronary artenes
Constricted
Trachea and bronchi
Constricted
Stomach
Small Intestine
Pancreas Liver and gall bladder
Kidney
Small intestine
Large intestine
Bladder
Sex organs and genitalia
Secretion of pancreatic juice Secretion of bile increased Blood vessels dilated
absorption increased Digestion and
motility increased
Secretion of gastric juice and
increased
Male: erection
Sphincters relaxed
Muscle of wall contracted
Sphincters relaxed increased
Secretions and molility
mobility increased
Secretion of intestinal juice and
Urine secretion increased
Female: variable; depending on
stage in cycle
Where there are no broken lines, the postganglionic neurone is in the wall of the of stimulation. Solid lines-preganglionic fibers; broken lines-postganglionic fibers. Figure 13.24 The parasympathetic outflow, the main structures supplied and the effects
structure

Structure of ear
‣ Structure of eye
Extraocular mu
▸ Accessory orga
STRUCTURES
Hear Parotid gland
sublingual submandibular Salivary glands: Lacrimal gland
Iris muscle
EFFECTS OF STIMULATION
Tear secretion increased
Contracted Pupil constricted
Saliva secretion increased
decreased Rate and force of contraction
Saliva secretion increased
The Spec
Unit T
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The Nervous System
SPINAL
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The Nervous System
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Blood vessois head
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Crai and nasal mucosa
Skeletal cod vessels Heart
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Stomach
EFFECTS OF STIMULATION
Pupil cated Slightly relaxed
Constncled
Secretion inhibited
Mucus secretion inhibited
Dilated
Rale and force of contraction increased
Dilated
Sight vasoconstriction
Peristalsis reduced
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Sphincters closed
Peristalsis and cre decreased Vasoconstriction
Glycogen glucose conversion increased
Contracted
Adrenalin and noradrenalin
Secretion increased
Intenar meserianc
ganglion
1
Large and small intestine
Kidnay Bladder
Sex organs and genitalia
Motility reduced
Sphincters closed
Urine secretion decreased
Wail relax.d Sphincter closed
Generally blood vessels constricted
Figure 12.30 The sympathetic outflow, the main structures supplied and the effects of stimulation solid lines-preganglionic fibers; broken lines-postganglionic fibers.
Parasympathetic Division
The other name for the parasympathetic division is the craniosacral division. The cell bodies of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are in the brain stem and the sacral segments of the spinal cord. Their axons are in cranial nerve pairs 3,7,9, and 10 and in some sacral nerves and extend to the parasympathetic ganglia. These ganglia are very close to or actually in the visceral effector (figure 12.31) and contain the postganglionic cell bodies, with very short axons to the cells of the effector.
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The Nervous System
Table 13.1 Summary of the cranial nerves
Name and no.
I. Olfactory (sensory)
II. Optic (Sensory)
III. Oculomotor (motor)
IV. Trochlear (motor)
V. Trigemenal (mixed)
VI. Abducent (motor)
Central connection
Smell area in temporal lobe of cerebrum through olfactory bulb -Sight area in occipital lobe of cerebrum - Cerebellum
Nerve cells near the floor of the aqueduct of midbrain
Nerve cells near the floor of aqueduct of midbrain
-Motor fibers from the pons Sensory fibers from the trigeminal ganglion Floor of fourth ventricle
VII: Facial (mixed) Pons
VIII.Vestibulocochlear (sensory)
a. vestibular
b. cochlear
Cerebellum Hearing area of cerebrum
IX. Glossopharyngeal Medulla oblongata (mixed)
X. Vagus (mixed)
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XI. Accessory (motor)
XII. Hypoglossal (motor)
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Peripheral connection
Function
Mucous membrane .in roof of nose
Sense of smell
Retina of the eye
Superior, inferior, and medial rectus muscles of the eye Ciliary muscles of the eye Circular muscle fibers of the iris
Superior oblique muscles of the eyes
Muscles of mastication.
Sensory to gums, cheek, lower jaw, iris, cornea
Lateral rectus muscle of the eye -Sensory fibers to the tongue -Motor fibers to the muscles of the face - Semicircular canals in the inner
ear

• Organ of corti in cochlea
  Parotid glands Back of tongue and pharynx
  Pharynx, larynx; organs, glands,
  ducts, blood
  Medulla oblongata vessels in the
  thorax and abdomen
  Sternocleidomastoid,
  and pharyngeal muscles
  Medulla oblongata trapezius, laryngeal
  Medulla oblongata Tongue
  -sense of sight -balance
  -Moving the eyeball -Focusing Regulating the size of pupil
  Movement of the eyeball


• Chewing


• Sensation from the face
  Movement of the Jeye


• Sense of taste - Movements of facial expression.


• Maintenance of balance


• Sense of hearing - Secretion of saliva Sense of taste Movement of pharynx.
  Movement and secretion
  Movement of the
  head, shoulders, pharynx and larynx Movement of tongue
  Autonomic Nervous System
  The Nervous System
  The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is actually part of the peripheral nervous system in that it consists of motor portions of some cranial and spinal nerves.
  visceral motor
  Making up the autonomic nervous system are neurons to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. These are the visceral effecorts; muscle will either contract or relax, and glands will either increase or decrease their secretions.
  The ANS has two divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic. Often, they function in opposition to each other, as you will see. The activity of both divisions is integrated by the hypothalamus, which ensures that the visceral effectors will respond appropriately to the situation.
  Autonomic Pathways
  An autonomic nerve pathway from the central nervous system to a visceral effector consists of two motor neurons that synapse in a ganglion outside the CNS (figure 12.30). The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron, from the CNS to the ganglion. The second neuron is called the postganglionic neuron, from the ganglion to the visceral effector. The ganglia are actually the cell bodies of the postganglionic neurons.
  Sympathetic Division
  Another name for the sympathetic division is thoracolumbar division, which tells us where the sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate. Their cell bodies are in the thoracic segments and some of the lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Their axons extend to the sympathetic ganglia. Most of which are located in two chains just outside the spinal column (figure 12.30). Within the ganglia are the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons; the postganglionic axons then go to the visceral effectors. One preganglionic neuron often synapses with many postganglionic neurons to many effecors. This anatomic arrangemةent has physiologic importance: the sympathetic division brings about widespread responses in many organs.
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