Approaches in Language Testing
Testing system is an essential part in teaching as it helps us to
know the stage of the candidates or the students and depending on the level we as teachers can take advance steps
for the development of their quality.This is because a "specific purpose language test is one
in which test content and methods are derived from an analysis of a
specific purposes target language use situation, so that test tasks and content are authentically representative of
tasks in the target situation" (Douglas, 2000, p. 19). Thus, the issue of authenticity is central to the assessment of
language for specific functions. This is another way of saying that testing is a socially situated activity although the
social aspects have been relatively under-explored (Wigglesworth, 2008). Yet, language tests differ with respect to
how they are designed, and what they are for, in other words, in respect to test method and test purpose. In terms of
method, we can broadly distinguish traditional paper-and-pencil language tests from performance tests. Paper-and-pencil language tests are typically used for the
assessment either of separate components of language knowledge (grammar, vocabulary etc.), or of a receptive
understanding (listening and reading comprehension). In performance-based tests, the
language skills are assessed in an act of communication. Performance tests' are most commonly tests of speaking
and writing, for instance, to ask a language learner to introduce himself or herself formally or informally and to write a
composition, a paragraph or an essay, on the way he or she spent her summer holidays. These examples are elicited
in
the context of simulations of real-world tasks in realistic contexts. In terms of purpose, several types of language tests
have devised to measure the learning outcomes accordingly. However, each test has its specific purpose, properties
and criterion to be measured?. The test types that will be dealt with in this part have been laid-out not in terms of
importance, they are all of equal importance, but on the basis of alphabetical order. Yet, dictation, the traditional
testing device which focuses much more on discrete language items, will have its fair of attention in terms of its pros
and cons. 1. Achievement Test
An achievement test, also referred to as attainment or summative test, are devised to measure how much of a
language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or programme of instruction, e.g. end-
of-year tests designed to show mastery of a language. An achievement test might be a listening comprehension test
based on a particular set of situational dialogues in a textbook. The test has a two-fold objective:
1. To help the teachers judge the success of their teaching. 2. To identify the weaknesses of their learners. In more practical and pedagogical terms, Brown (1994, p. 259)
defines an achievement test as ,,tests that are limited to particular material covered in a curriculum within a particular
time frame".The term "placement test" as Richards et al. (1989) note does not refer to what a test contains or how it is
constructed, but to the purpose for which it used. Various types or testing procedures such as dictation, interview or a
grammar test (discrete or integrative) can be used for placement purposes. The English Placement test (EPT), which
is a well-known test in America, is an illustrative example of this test-type. The EPT is designed to assess the level of
reading and writing skills of entering undergraduate students so that they can be placed in appropriate courses. Those undergraduate students who do not demonstrate college or university-level skills will be directed to remedial
courses or programmes to help them attain these skills. 7. Proficiency Test
A proficiency test is devised to measure how much of a language someone has learned. It is not linked to any
particular course of instruction, but measures the learner's general level of language mastery. Most English language
proficiency tests base their testing items
on high frequency-count vocabulary and general basic grammar. Some proficiency tests have been standardized for worldwide use, such as the well-known American tests, the
TOEFL, and the English Language Proficiency Test (ELPT) 3 which are used to measure the English language
proficiency of foreign students intending further study at English-speaking institutions, namely the USA. However, the Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English or
CPE, as it is generally referred to, is the most advanced remains the only British top-value and high-prestige
standardized language test. It is the most advanced general English exam provided by the University of Cambridge. The Certificate is recognized by universities and employees throughout the world. The English level of those who
pass the CPE is supposed to similar to that of a fairly educated native speaker of English. Clearly, as Valette posits,
,,the aim of a proficiency test is to determine whether this language ability corresponds to specific language
requirements" (Valette, 1977.Ideally, diagnostic tests are designed to assess students" linguistic knowledge (knowledge of and about the
language) and language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) before a course is begun. However, the term formative is sometimes used to designate a diagnostic test. One of the main advantages of a
diagnostic test is that it offers useful pedagogical solutions for mixed-ability classes. In this very specific context,
Broughton et al. (1980) contend that:
There will certainly be a large block in the middle of the ability
range who can be separated off as a group for some parts of the lesson, or for some lessons, and will form a more
homogenous teaching group. If this strategy is adopted, the poor ones and the better ones must receive their due time and attention. (Broughton et
al. 1980, p. 189)
4. Discrete-Point Test
The discrete-point
fest, also called discrete-item test, is a
language test which measures knowledge of individual language items, such as a grammar test which has different
sections on tenses, adverbs
and prepositions. Discrete-point tests are based on the theory that language consists of different parts such as
speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary, and different skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing, and
these are made up of elements that can be tested separately. Test consisting of multiple-choice questions are usually
regarded as discrete-point tests. Discrete-point tests are all too often contrasted with what are called integrative tests. An integrative test is one which requires a learner to use several skills at the same time. An essay-writing is an
integrative test because it leans heavily on the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and rules of discourse; a dictation
is also an integrative test as it requires knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and listening comprehension skills. In this vein, Harmer notes the following distinction between
discrete-point testing and integrative testing, "Whereas discrete point-testing only tests on thing at a time such as
asking students to choose the correct tense of a verb, integrative test items expect students to use a variety of
language at any one given time - as they will have to do when writing a composition or doing a conversational oral
test" (Harmer, 2001, p. 323).In the same line of thought and Broughton et al. ,more than some thirty years ago, noted
that "Since language is seen as a number of systems, there will be items to test knowledge of both the production
and reception of the sound segment system, of the stress
system, the intonation system, and morphemic system, the grammatical system, the lexical system and so on"
(Broughton et al., 1980, pp. 149-
150). 5. Language Aptitude Test
Before one ventures into defining what a language aptitude test
is, it would be wiser to start first by defining what a language aptitude is.
Language aptitude, as a hybrid concept part linguistic and part psychological, refers to the genuine ability one is
endowed with to learn a language. It is thought to be a combination of several abilities:
Phonological ability, ie. the ability to detect phonetic
differences (e.g. of stress, intonation, vowel quality) in a new language. o Syntactic ability, i.e., the ability to recognize the different
o grammatical functions of words in sentences. o Psychological ability, i.e. rote-learning abilities and the ability to
o make inferences and inductive learning. Additionally, Crystal (1989, p. 371) suggests other variables
conducive to successful language learning such as ,,empathy and adaptability, assertiveness and independence with
good drive and powers of application".According to Brown (2004), in developing performance-based assessment, we as teacher should consider the
following principle:
o State the overall goal of the performance
o Specify the objectives (criteria) of the performance in details
o Prepare students for performance in stepwise progressions
o Use a reliable evaluation form, checklist or rating sheet
o Treat performances as opportunities for giving feedback and provide that feedback systematically
If possible, utilize self- and peer-assessments judiciously
(wisely/carefully)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Language Testing Approach
1.It is, "arguably the most well-known and widely used large-scale language
assessment in the world" (Kunnan, 2008, p. 140). It was first developed in 1963 in the United States to help in the
assessment of the language competence of non-native speakers. As a test type, it is a standardized test of English
proficiency administered by the Educational Testing Service, Princeton. It is widely used to measure the English-
language proficiency of foreign students wishing to enter American colleges and universities. According to Taylor and
Angelis (cited in Kunnan, 2008) the first TOEFL was administered in 1964 at 57 test centres to 920 test candidates. Recently, the TOEFL has widely been recognized as a model test and have-take-test for our students, graduate and
postgraduate, as well as our teachers and researchers in universities and higher education institutions wishing to
read for higher degrees and develop further their research potential in North American universities. Kunnan (2008, p.
141) notes that, "Over the years, the TOEFL became mandatory for non-American and non-Stern (1983, p. 340) notes that ,,if the ultimate objective of language teaching
is effective language learning, then our main concern must be the learning outcome". In the same line of thought,
Wigglesworth (2008, p. 111) further adds that "In the assessment of languages, tasks are designed to measure
learners" productive language skills through performances which allow candidates to demonstrate the kinds of
language skills that may be required in a real world context."It consists of a short written passage that the learner reads orally; the teacher then examines a tape
recording of that reading against a very detailed checklist of pronunciation errors.According to Oller
(1983), if discrete items take language skill apart, integrative tests put it back together; whereas discrete items
attempt to test knowledge of language a bit at a time, integrative tests
attempt to assess a learner's capacity to use many bits all at the same time.o In the term of scoring, the test is also reliable because of its objectivity; the scoring is efficient, even it can be
perform by machine
Weaknesses
o Constructing discrete point test items is potentially energy and time consuming.o The strength of the test such as dictation, writing, and cloze test is that relatively cheap and easy to make
Weaknesses
o Even if measuring integrated skills are better but sometimes teacher should consider the importance of
measuring skills based on particular need, such as writing only, speaking only
o The scoring is not efficient and not reliable
3. It will give them learning experience more than just paper and pencil
test)
o Authentic (since the materials and topics we use in class is authentic, the students can see the relation of
what they learn with the reality in their daily lives)
o Challenge high order thinking of students (In order to prepare for the best performance, the students will try
their best to analyze the problem deeper and find many learning sources by themselves )
Weaknesses
o Time consuming (for students: they need to prepare the performance e.g. Download information for the
Internet or preparing the costume and property for role-play, for teacher: Teachers need to provide guidance
in every stage they are going to be through.Norm-Referenced Test
Norm-referenced tests are designed to highlight achievement
differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank order of students across a continuum of
achievement from high achievers to low achievers (Stiggins, 1994).Placement tests come in many varieties: assessing comprehension and production, responding through
written and oral performance, multiple choice, and gap filling formats.Criterion-referenced tests report how well students are doing relative to a pre-determined performance level on a
specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the school, district, or state curriculum.This approach stated that
communicative competence is so global that it requires the integration of all linguistic abilities.The fact that discrete point and integrative testing only provided
a measure of the candidate's competence rather than measuring the candidate's performance brought about the
need for communicative language testing (Weir 1990).The principles of testing in the communicative language testing
can be described as the following (Anon, 1990):
o Tasks in the test should resemble as far as possible to the ones as would be found in real life in terms of
communicative use of
language
There is a call for test items contextualization.Weaknesses
o Not efficient (time and energy consuming)
o Problem of extrapolation (Weir, 1990) (we cannot guarantee that the students who successfully accomplish
the task in class will also be successful in the communication in real life)
4.Performance Testing Approach
Strengths
Increasing learning motivation (The students tend to be more motivated and involved when they are allowed to
perform according to their own plan, collect data, infer a pattern, draw conclusions, take stand, or deliver a
presentation.)
o Meaningful (it is meaningful assessment since we require students to show what they can do through
project, performance, or observation.Proficiency tests have traditionally consisted of standardized multiple-
choices item on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension.According to John Carrol and Stanley Sapon (the authors of MLAT), language aptitude tests does not refer to
whether or not an individual can learn a foreign language; but it refers to how well an individual can learn a foreign
language in a given amount of time and under given conditions.Criterion-referenced tests give detailed information about how well a student has
performed on each of the educational goals or outcomes included on that test.Diagnostic tests in pronunciation, for example, might have the purpose of
determining which particular phonological features of the English language are more likely to pose problems and
difficulties for a group of learners.p. 6)
Actually, there are four other types of Cambridge proficiency
tests, the Cambridge Key English Test (KET), the Cambridge Preliminary English Test (PET), The Cambridge First
Certificate of English (FCE) and the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English (CAE).Discrete point tests aim to achieve a high reliability factor by testing a large number of discrete items, but
each question tests only one linguistic point.Integrative Testing Approach
This approach involves the testing of language in context and is
thus concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse.Communicative Testing Approach
Communicative testing approach lays more emphasis on the notion and function, like agreeing, persuading, or
inviting, that language means in communication.For example, a multiple choice test might be
useful for demonstrating memory and recall, for example, but it may require an essay or open-ended
problem-solving for students to demonstrate more independent analysis or synthesis.Indirect Competence Test
The indirect competence test is a test that focuses on to measure the student's knowledge about language
component, like grammar or vocabulary, which the elicitation does not use one of the basic skills, speaking, listening,
reading, or writing.Cloze Test
A cloze test, also alternately referred to as cloze procedure,
consists of a set of techniques for measuring, for example, reading comprehension.of written
... The learners filling the missing
(Adapted from Richards et al., 1989, p. 41)
Here, the test-taker or the reader has to guess the following
missing words: a, passage, which, removed, try, by and words.Both of these are English tests and require students to
perform such tasks as learning numbers, listening, detecting spelling clues and grammatical patterns and memorizing
(Brown, 1994).When the assessment is used at the end of the term, semester or
year with a view to measuring what has been gained both by groups and by individuals, this kind of assessment is
known as summative assessment.Discrete-point Testing Approach
Discrete Point tests are constructed on the assumption that
language can be divided into its components parts, and those parts can be tested successfully.The components are
the skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing, and various unit of language of phonology, morphology, lexicon, and
syntax.There is a need to make test items that address a definite
audience for a purposeful communicative intent (goal) to be envisioned (might happen).Integrative Testing Approach
Strength
o The approach to meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse will be very useful for pupils in
testing
o This approach can view pupils' proficiency with a global view.Proficiency tests should elicit information on what students need to work in the future;
therefore the test will typically offer more detailed subcategorized information on the learner.Type of
objective test includes multiple-choice tests, true or false test, matching and problem based questions.Language competence test is a test that involves components of language such as
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation while performance test is a test that involves the basic skills in English that
are writing, speaking, listening and reading.Direct Competence Tests
The direct competence test is a test that focuses on to measure the student's knowledge about language component,
like grammar or vocabulary, which the elicitation uses one of the basic skills, speaking, listening, reading, or writing.The content of norm-referenced tests is
selected according to how well it ranks students from high achievers to
low.The second is that they are fundamentally trying to test that knowledge of the language
system that underlies any actual instance of its use -linguistic competence in the Chomskyan sense- they are not
concerned with the ability to master the language system for particular purposes with particular people in particular
situations.Diagnostic Test
As its name denotes, a diagnostic test is primarily designed to
diagnose some particular linguistic aspects.Language aptitude tests usually consist of several different test items which
measures such abilities as:
o Sound-coding ability, i.e. the ability to identify and remember new sounds in a new language.Two well-known standardized language aptitude tests have been
used in the United States, the Moder Language Aptitude Test (Carroll and Sapon, 1958) and the Primsleur Language
Aptitude Battery (Primsleur, 1966). A progress test may be viewed as
similar to an achievement test but much narrower and much more specific in scope (Richards et al.,
1989).They help examiners in general and language teachers in particular to assess the degree of success of their
programmes and teaching and therefore to identify their shortcomings and weaknesses respectively.When teachers try to find out the improvement of their students, to observe
how they have develop and to pinpoint out what they should have learned and finally use this information to modify
their future teaching plans.By the mid-1980s, the language-testing field had abandoned
arguments about the unitary competence and had begun to focus on designing communicative language testing
(Brown, 2004)
3. o Expensive (Students: the students should provide extra money to prepare the performance such as
costumes for role play)
o Challenge the teacher to match performance assessment to classroom goals and learning objectives.Those tests are proficiency test, diagnostic test,
placement test, achevement test, language aptitude test.If usually includes a sampling of the material to be covered in the various courses in a curriculum.Achievement Test
The purpose of achievement tests is to determine whether course objectives have been met with skills acquired by
the end of a period of instruction.In other words, the content selected in norm-referenced tests is chosen by how well it discriminates among
students.For example, if a student receives a percentile
rank score on the total test of 34, this means that he or she performed as well or better than 34% of the students in
the norm group.This type of information can useful for deciding whether or not students need remedial assistance or
is a candidate for a gifted program.Criterion- Referenced Test
Criterion-referenced tests determine what test takers can do and what they know, not how they compare to others
(Anastasi, 1988).The content of a crterion-referenced test is determined by how well it matches the learning outcomes
deemed most important.In other words, the content selected for the criterion-standard test is selected on the basis of
its significance in the curriculum.Ideally, achievement tests are rarely constructed by classroom teacher for a
particular class.However, two substantial criticisms have been made to the cloze-
test types (Broughton et al., 1980).Grammar-coding ability, i.e. the ability to identify the
grammatical functions of different parts of sentences.Placement Test
A placement test, as its name implies, is originally designed to place learners at an appropriate level in a programme
or course.Progress tests
can also be diagnostic to some degree, in the sense that they help identify areas of difficulties encountered by
learners in general.Test instructions and scoring plans should touch on effective,
communication of meaning rather than on grammatical accuracy
4.o Success in doing the test is not readily inferable to the ability of the test taker to communicate in real life
circumstances.Communicative Testing Approach
Strength
o The tests are more realistic to evaluate the students' language use, as the students in a role as though they
were to communicate in the real world / daily lives.The
reason(s) for giving a test will help you determine features such as length, format, level of detail required in
answers, and the time frame for returning results to the students.o Maintain consistency between goals for the course, methods of teaching, and the tests used to measure
achievement of goals.If, for example, class time emphasizes review and recall of information, then
95
so can the test; if class time emphasizes analysis and synthesis, then the test can also be designed to demonstrate
how well students have learned these things.Use consistent language in stating goals, in talking in class, and in writing test questions) to describe expected
outcomes.These tests offer a checklist of features for the teacher to
use in discovering difficulties.Achievement tests should be limited to particular material addressed in a curriculum
within a particular time frame.Subjective Test
Subjective test is a test in which the learners ability or performance are judged by examiners' opinion and judgment.Direct testing is a test that the process to elicit students' competences uses basic skill, like speaking,
writing, listening, or reading while indirect language testing is a test that the process to elicit students' competences
does not use basic skills.Direct Performance Test
Direct performance test is a test that focuses on to measure the
students' skill in reading, writing, speaking, and listening that the elicitation is through direct communication.Indirect Performance Test
Indirect performance test is a test that focuses on measure the
students' skill in reading, writing, speaking, and listening that the elicitation does not use the basic skill.School systems might want to classify students in
this way so that they can be properly placed in remedial or gifted programs.A student's performance on a norm referenced test is interpreted in relation to the performance of a large
group of similar students who took the test when it was first normed.Educators may choose to use a criterion-referenced test when they wish to see how well students have learned the
knowledge and skills which they are expected to have mastered.Types of Language Tests
The needs of assessing the outcome of learning have led to the development and elaboration of different test
formats.In other words, they are designed primarily to measure individual progress rather than as a means of
motivating or reinforcing language.In a cloze test words are
removed from a reading passage at regular intervals, leaving blanks.To provide learners with a way to start learning with their own personal learning programme or what would be
called in the literature of testing learning paths.This kind of assessment is known
as formative and summative assessment.It should produce truthful measures of the abilities in which we are paying attention.Communicative language testing approach is used to measure
language learners' ability to use the target language in authentic situations.The approach beliefs that someone/ a
student is considered successful in learning the target language if she/he can communicate or use knowledge and
skills by way of authentic listening, speaking, reading and writing .Communicative language tests have to be as accurate a reflection of that situation as possible.Performance-based
assessment believes that the students will learn best when they are given a chance to perform and show what they
know according to their own plan, collect data, infer pattern, draw conclusion, take a stand or deliver presentation.o The test allows quantification on the students' responses.grammar, or vocabulary of their writing.1.3.1.2.2.1.2.3.4.5.1.2.1.2.3.4.1.2...........2.3.1.2.6.8.9.