In nonexperimental studies, it is often more diffi cult to label variables as independent or dependent.Not only does it precede student achievement 
but also it would be illogical to say that student achievement infl uenced teacher 
experience.In a study of the relationship between self-confi dence and 
popularity in high school students, either variable could be considered independent or dependent.If you investigate the 
effect of motivation on achievement, then motivation is the independent variable