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No science stands alone. Research findings must be shared with the world to be of real use. The purpose of a research paper is to present findings for others to utilize. Research results are interdisciplinary, leading to unforeseen consequences and advancements in various fields.
Research must be published in an accessible manner for all, not just fellow researchers. Papers should be organized logically for the dissemination of knowledge. The handbook is a guide for researchers writing scientific work in English, aiming for clarity and accuracy.
The handbook is a pilot version, with the final edition expected in 2001. Feedback on the draft is crucial for the compilers, including individuals from various universities in different countries.
Scientific and technical writing can take the form of scientific articles, research papers, and proposals. Scientific articles are typically published in journals, magazines, and newspapers to reach a broader audience than research papers. The writing style of scientific articles varies based on the intended readership, with scholarly journals allowing specialized vocabulary while popular magazines aim for accessibility. The structure of a scientific article includes the introduction, main body, and conclusion, each requiring a logical flow of ideas.
Articles and essays must be well-organized, with a clear introduction, development of ideas in the body, and a conclusive end. The writer's ability to present main ideas, supporting evidence, analyses, and conclusions in a structured manner is crucial for effective communication. Following the specific style standards outlined in Style Manuals for each discipline is essential for writers to maintain consistency and credibility in their work. These manuals are readily available for various fields of science and disciplines, guiding writers on the appropriate writing style to adhere to.
Research papers are typically aimed at scientists in the same field, leading to a more specialized readership compared to articles. They can be found in specialist journals or presented at conferences. The structure of a research paper is more defined, consisting of 8 sections that follow a specific sequence, including the title, abstract, introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, and references cited.
The title of a research paper must accurately describe its contents, while the abstract provides a brief overview. The introduction outlines the research's purpose, hypothesis, background information, and literature review. Methods and materials detail the equipment and methods used, while results present the research findings, often including visual materials. The discussion section evaluates and interprets the results, addressing whether the hypothesis was supported and citing relevant results.
The conclusion section summarizes the findings, draws conclusions about the hypothesis, discusses the research's implications, and proposes additional research. The references cited section lists all references used, including those cited in the literature review. Each element of a research paper is further explained in Chapter 2 Composition, with variations possible depending on the research nature.
Proposals are essential for researchers to secure funding for their projects. The purpose of a proposal is to convince funders that the research is valuable and worth investing in. A proposal must be persuasive, request funding, promise completion of the project, and outline a detailed plan for the research.
Components of a proposal typically include a cover letter introducing the researchers, the reason for the research, cost, length, and benefits of the project. A title page with project details, a table of contents for longer proposals, and a summary of 150-300 words are also common elements in a proposal. The cover letter and summary are crucial parts of a proposal that
should be carefully crafted to make a strong case for funding.
The text provides a structured guide for writing a research proposal. It emphasizes the importance of establishing the need for the research and showcasing the credibility of the researchers. The introduction should include background information on the research need and details about the researchers and their organization.
A needs assessment section should address the motivation behind the research, how it aims to meet the need, and the qualifications of the researchers. Objectives should outline the research goal, expected results, benefits, and how they align with the needs. The methods section should detail how the research will be conducted and justify the proposed methods and timeline.
Pre-evaluation should explain how the project will be evaluated, what data will be gathered, the expected project length, and how results will be disseminated. Long-term financial plans should be specific, detailing how the project will be funded beyond the grant period. The budget section must itemize materials needed and their costs.
Personnel details who will be involved in the research, their specific roles, and responsibilities. Appendices may include resumes of researchers, references, board members, organization charts, letters of support, and relevant charts, graphs, and tables.
Scientific writing aims to convey information clearly and concisely, starting with the title. A title should be precise and informative, avoiding poetic or stylized language. It should clearly indicate the topic, focus, and optionally the purpose of the writing. Punctuation in titles should follow specific rules, using capital letters for main words. Titles should be clear, concise, and stand alone.
Sample titles should include elements such as "An analysis of," "An overview of," "A discussion of," or "An evaluation of," followed by specific topics. The titles should use key words to inform readers of the content without overwhelming them with technical jargon. The goal is to attract a wider audience while maintaining clarity and precision in the title. Titles should not be part of the opening sentence or paragraph in scientific writing.
The primary tool for a writer is making a plan or outline before starting to write. Planning enables you to organize your thoughts efficiently, decide on the most effective way to present your information, keep to a logical sequence of points, remember all the necessary information, and cut out unnecessary or irrelevant bits. A plan can be changed as writing is an exploratory process, allowing for adjustments to account for additional points or changes in emphasis. Different kinds of plans include a simple plan, a complete plan, a question plan, and a sentence plan.
Putting your ideas in order is crucial in writing. Written work must be ordered in a sane, sensible, and logical fashion. It is essential to have a goal, a main idea, and intent, ensuring that every idea, sentence, and paragraph leads towards that goal effectively. Having a reason for ordering your paper as you do and convincing the reader of your argument by developing it smoothly and logically is important. Each idea and concept should flow logically from one to the next.
Different ways of ordering material include chronological or sequential, step by step, from simple to complex, from complex to simple, from general to specific, and from specific to general. Step by step ordering involves making points one after another in the order of occurrence. From simple to complex is used when proving an assertion made in the introduction, building the reader's understanding gradually. From complex to simple is used when urging the reader to apply a solution to a problem. From general to specific and from specific to general are used when contrasting and comparing, moving from similarity to difference or vice versa.
In a typical layout, a combination of numerals and letters are organized in a hierarchy. Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, lower case letters, numerals in parentheses, and lower case letters in parentheses are used to signify main points and subpoints. Each lower level is indented further to show the hierarchy.
Paragraphs are essential building blocks of writing, marking the flow of an argument. Each paragraph focuses on one main idea with connected sentences to expand upon it. The length of a paragraph varies based on content, typically between seven and fourteen lines. Shorter or longer paragraphs can be used for emphasis or detailed elaboration, but too many short or long paragraphs can affect readability.
There is usually only one main idea expressed in a paragraph through a topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph support and expand on this main idea in different ways. The last sentence of a paragraph is important as it can summarize the gist of the paragraph.

The main idea of a paragraph is typically found in the first sentence, known as the 'topic sentence.' Paragraphs can have various functions, such as clarifying the main idea, explaining it, providing examples, or giving supporting evidence. There is also linking between paragraphs to maintain continuity in the argument. An example paragraph about Ultra Long Duration Balloons illustrates the structure and functions of sentences within a paragraph.
The Ultra Long Duration Balloon is a super-pressure balloon that differs from conventional balloons by not venting to the atmosphere. Made from stronger materials like polyester, these balloons are inflated and sealed. When the balloon reaches the desired altitude, the internal pressure increases due to the sun's heat, maintaining a stable altitude without needing to drop ballast. As long as the balloon remains impermeable to helium or hydrogen molecules, it can stay aloft for longer durations than zero-pressure systems.
The analysis of the sample paragraph reveals that sentences (2) to (7) explain how the Ultra Long Duration Balloon operates, with (2) detailing its construction, (3) and (4) explaining its function in the air, and (5) describing what happens at night. Sentences (6) and (7) summarize the balloon's operation, while (8) concludes that the Ultra Long Duration Balloon can remain in the air longer than conventional balloons.
The text provides guidelines for constructing paragraphs in academic writing. It suggests visually checking the length of paragraphs, ensuring they are between 7 and 14 lines with an average of 15 to 25 words per sentence. The 'skim' test is recommended to assess if the topic sentences effectively convey the main argument.
Two types of introductions are discussed: for articles and research papers. An introduction should not only introduce the topic but also engage the reader to continue reading. Key points to include in an introduction are presenting the topic, narrowing the focus, and stating a clear thesis statement. Terms like topic, topic sentence, thesis, and hypothesis are explained in relation to introductory paragraphs.
The topic is the subject of the paper, while the topic sentence states the topic of the paragraph or paper. The thesis statement encapsulates the main argument in a concise sentence, and a hypothesis is a tentative explanation used for reasoning or investigation. It is noted that a hypothesis, whether proven true or false, holds significance in research.
The introduction to a research paper should involve the reader by answering questions about the reason for the research, the hypothesis or thesis, background information, and relevant literature. An example provided discusses the purpose of researching ways to strengthen recycled paper products by adding Hemp fibers. The thesis statement or hypothesis should be clearly stated to guide the paper's content and structure.
The thesis statement serves as the central idea of the paper, which needs to be proven through evidence and examples. A hypothesis can also be used in research papers, especially when presenting tentative conclusions. An example hypothesis is given for the research on adding Hemp fibers to recycled paper to increase strength. Various sample phrases are suggested for introducing the purpose and focus of the research paper. These phrases help in clearly stating the objectives and content of the paper to the reader.
In recent years, there has been a lively debate surrounding the topic of ... The controversy surrounding ... has increased recently, while the question of ... has been extensively researched in recent years.
The article is structured into six main sections. The first section examines the question of ..., followed by a brief outline of ... The subsequent section discusses ..., providing an overview of ... This is then followed by ..., leading to the final section which presents ... The article concludes with suggestions on ...
When writing an introduction to an article, it is crucial to ensure that the topic is clearly communicated to the reader, capturing their interest with a 'hook.' The thesis statement should be concise and clearly state the argument's thrust. In the introduction to a research paper, it is important to state the topic and purpose of the research, express the hypothesis or thesis statement clearly, eliminate irrelevant information, provide sufficient background information, and ensure conciseness.
The main body of the paper primarily focuses on scientific and technical articles, with relevance to the introduction, discussion, and conclusions sections of a research paper. There are three main types of articles: informational or expository, which aims to present information objectively without bias, focusing on sharing information effectively.
Explanatory writing aims to present information and provide an explanation or rationale without bias. Argumentative or persuasive writing involves the writer having a viewpoint and attempting to persuade the reader to agree with it through logical arguments. Coherence in writing is crucial, with each sentence, paragraph, idea, concept, argument, and example leading logically to the next to maintain a cohesive whole. Unrelated information should be omitted, and linking language should be used to connect points in the argument. Consistency in writing style and tone is essential throughout the piece.
Illustrations in essays or articles should be used sparingly and only if they are the best way to convey information. Artwork, photographs, stories, and anecdotes may be utilized in essays or articles to engage the reader and illustrate arguments, concepts, or ideas. Drafting and re-drafting are essential in the writing process, with multiple revisions necessary to improve clarity, coherence, and overall quality. Taking breaks between drafts can help writers identify errors and enhance their writing.
Explanatory writing aims to present information while providing an explanation or rationale. Argumentative or persuasive writing involves the writer expressing a viewpoint to persuade the reader. Coherence in writing is crucial, with each sentence and paragraph logically leading to the next. The paper should function as a whole, with each section serving a specific purpose. Unrelated information should be omitted, and linking language should be used to connect points in the argument.
Illustrations in essays or articles should be used sparingly, only if they are the best way to convey information. Artwork and photographs are more common in essays than in research papers. Verbal illustrations, such as stories and anecdotes, can be used to engage the reader and support arguments. Drafting and re-drafting are essential in the writing process, with multiple revisions necessary to improve clarity and coherence. Leaving time between drafts can help identify errors and enhance the overall quality of the writing.
When writing or re-drafting an article, it is crucial to ensure that the thesis statement is clear and understandable. The tone and vocabulary used should be appropriate for the intended audience. The first and last paragraphs play a significant role in conveying the gist of the entire article, with the conclusion being a crucial anchor in the reader's mind. It is essential to avoid simply restating the introduction in the conclusion, but rather to incorporate all developed points from the main body and add something extra to complete the work.
In a conclusion, it is important to include a summary of the main points in a different way to provide a fresh perspective for the reader. Evaluating the topic based on the evidence presented, extending the thesis statement logically from the main points, proposing solutions to discussed problems, reconciling opposing views, and suggesting further investigations are all valuable components to include. The conclusion should not be a mere repetition of the introduction but should serve as a strong ending that ties together all aspects discussed in the article. It is crucial to pay attention to grammatical accuracy, spelling, and adherence to the appropriate Style Manual when writing or re-drafting an article.
The text discusses what should not be included in a conclusion, such as restating the thesis statement, introducing new evidence, starting a new topic, providing detailed explanations, or presenting opposing arguments. It gives an example of a conclusion for a paper on the use of hemp in reprocessed paper manufacture, highlighting the changing attitudes towards hemp over time. The conclusion emphasizes the need to reevaluate society's views on hemp and its potential benefits, especially in terms of environmental sustainability. The author encourages readers to reconsider their attitudes towards hemp and its various practical applications.
The Conclusion section of a research paper is easier to write than an essay or article and must include conclusions about the hypothesis, results of the research, possible hypotheses raised, and specific lines of additional research. The presentation of these conclusions depends on the research and style sheet requirements. Sample phrases for conclusions include summarizing the research, indicating limitations, and suggesting future research. It is essential to ensure that the reader can understand the paper by reading the introduction and conclusion, avoid restating the introduction, and conclude with an impactful statement.
The main body of a research paper typically includes three sections: Methods and Materials, Results, and Discussion. In the Methods and Materials section, researchers detail the work done, including variables, equipment used, and procedures employed. This section is crucial for other researchers to replicate the study. The Results section presents data and findings using visuals like charts and graphs. The Discussion section interprets findings, evaluates the research, and explores the success or failure of research methods.
Methods and Materials section answers questions about the location, equipment, and procedures used in the research. Results section presents data using visuals like charts and graphs. Discussion section interprets findings, evaluates the research, and explores different research methods that could have been used. Questions in the Discussion section include whether the research supported the hypothesis, possible interpretations of results, adequacy of research methods, and suggestions for future research.
When describing graphs and tables, it is crucial to convey information accurately. Key vocabulary items include words for trends like increase, decrease, rise, fall, growth, drop, improvement, decline, upturn, downturn, and more. Adjectives and adverbs can be used to describe the degree and speed of change, such as dramatic, considerable, sharp, significant, abrupt, sudden, rapid, quick, steady, gradual, and slow. These terms help in effectively communicating trends and movements in data analysis.
Not everything in your writing needs to be documented, such as common knowledge, personal thoughts, opinions, and conclusions. However, when using someone else's ideas to support your thesis, proper credit must be given to avoid plagiarism. Types of references include footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies, each providing details about the sources used in your work.
Different publishers and disciplines have specific style requirements for referencing, with style sheets offering guidelines on how to format references. Writers are expected to adhere to the standards of their particular discipline. The format of references in footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies typically includes the author's name, publication year, book title, city of publication, and publisher.
The examples provided in the text follow APA style, as outlined in The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Writers should verify if this style is applicable to their discipline. Proper citation of a book involves listing the author's name, publication year, book title, city of publication, and publisher.
The text provides guidelines for referencing various sources in academic writing. It includes formats for citing books, articles, unpublished works, and electronic sources. For books, the author's name, publication year, title, place, and publisher are listed. When there are multiple authors, only one is mentioned followed by et al. Multiple works by the same author should be listed chronologically. For journal articles, the author's name, publication year, article title, journal name, volume, and page numbers are included. Unpublished works should include the author's name, title, and availability details. Electronic sources require the author's name, extract title, complete work title, producer, internet address, and access date.
The text emphasizes the importance of accurately citing sources to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism. Different types of sources such as books, journal articles, unpublished works, and electronic sources have specific formats for referencing. Proper citation formats help readers locate the original sources and verify the information presented in academic writing. Authors' names, publication years, titles, and other relevant details are essential components of a citation to provide a complete reference for the source used in the research.
The guidelines provided in the text cover a wide range of source types commonly used in academic writing. From traditional print sources like books and journal articles to modern electronic sources and unpublished works, each type of source requires specific information to be included in the citation. By following the recommended formats for referencing different sources, writers can ensure the accuracy and integrity of their research papers. The text also highlights the importance of consistency in citing sources, especially when dealing with multiple works by the same author or sources from electronic media.
All academic, scientific, technical, and research writing must cite all sources used to avoid plagiarism, which is considered a serious offense. Plagiarism can have severe consequences on the writer's reputation and integrity, potentially leading to career destruction. To prevent plagiarism, writers should provide in-text documentation for borrowed ideas, use quotation marks for direct quotes, ensure paraphrased material is in their own words, and provide detailed references in footnotes or a bibliography.
Abstracts, also known as summaries in some cases, are condensed versions of papers meant for readers who may not read the full article. They summarize the main findings and conclusions of a paper, allowing readers to decide if they want to read the full version. Abstracts are often separate from the original paper and need to be self-explanatory. They typically appear at the beginning of an article to inform readers concisely about the content.
There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. Descriptive abstracts provide a general overview of the paper's content, while informative abstracts include factual information like methods, results, and conclusions. The choice between the two depends on the nature of the paper and the editor's guidance. Abstracts can also combine elements of both types.
The length of an abstract is not fixed but typically ranges from 100 to 250 words, representing 5% to 10% of the original paper. Informative abstracts should include elements like an explanation of the title, research purpose, methodology, main findings, implications, recommendations, and research limitations. Information not present in the paper, tables, diagrams, and citations from other sources should not be included in the abstract.
An abstract is structured by putting the most significant ideas first, such as the method, results, or recommendations. Descriptive and informative abstracts both aim to communicate ideas effectively with direct, active statements. The use of verb tenses differs between the two types of abstracts, with the present tense used for general statements and the past tense for explaining research findings. Descriptive abstracts use general vocabulary, while informative abstracts use precise language and numbers. Keywords are important words related to the topic that may be printed at the end of the abstract.
Abstract A provides an overview of rotating stall and surge control for axial flow compressors. The research aims to suppress rotating stall and surge, extend the stable operating range, and improve compressor performance. The abstract is descriptive, explaining the research field, aims, and intentions of the authors. It uses present tenses and academic phrases to summarize major developments in the field.
The structure of Abstract A begins with an explanation of the research field, its aims, and potential outcomes. It then states the authors' intention to survey the research literature and summarize major developments. The language used includes present tenses, general academic phrases, and extended sentences to condense information effectively.
CD46 is identified as a cellular receptor for Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), which is linked to various diseases. The two major subgroups of HHV-6 use human CD46 for cell entry, and surface CD46 is downregulated during infection. Monoclonal antibodies to CD46 inhibit HHV-6 infection and cell fusion, while soluble CD46 blocks fusion. Expression of human CD46 in nonhuman cells makes them susceptible to HHV-6, suggesting a new understanding of the virus's tropism and pathogenicity.
Abstract B is an informative abstract that outlines the purpose, method, and results of the research on HHV-6 and CD46. It uses present and past tenses to describe the research process and findings. The language is technical, with specific verbs to detail the research outcomes. The abstract concludes with future prospects resulting from the study, emphasizing the importance of clear, concise information in abstract writing.
Summarizing involves condensing the main ideas of a text into a clear, objective, and balanced account. The goal is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the original text in the context of one's work. Summaries can be standalone pieces, similar to abstracts, or integrated sections within longer writings. The skill of summarizing requires identifying key ideas in the original text and presenting them in one's own words.
Summarizing involves condensing an author's ideas into your own words, while paraphrasing maintains more of the original length. Summaries are typically shorter and closely follow the structure and content of the original text. Summary writing is useful when reviewing articles, annotating bibliographies, or preparing abstracts. Guidelines for summary writing include reading the original text, highlighting main points, making notes, rewriting in your own words, starting with the main idea, and checking for completeness. The sample summary provided is about one third of the original length, with the information condensed into four sentences by omitting less important details and using subordinate clauses.
Dr Greenhalgh explains how solar power works in two ways. Light from the sun can generate a tiny current in silicon crystals, creating a solar cell, which is used to run space satellites and in the future could provide electricity from space power stations. Solar panels, or the larger industrial solar furnace, generate heat directly through concentrating solar energy in a small area. Solar power is renewable, non-polluting and potentially an important energy source, but its value is limited by weather, region and the cost of raw materials.
When publishing in English for academic communication, it is essential to adhere to general rules. Technical and scientific papers should prioritize objectivity, clarity, and precision. The use of formal patterns is common, but establishing rapport with the audience can influence the choice of formal or informal language. Scientific writing involves some creative language use and reflects cultural and rhetorical assumptions.
Objectivity in writing is crucial, requiring a fair and responsible approach without personal bias. Achieving objectivity and a neutral tone can be done through the passive voice and avoiding ambiguous statements. Impersonal writing style is common in scientific writing to prioritize information over personal opinions, enhancing objectivity. Using precise technical terms and avoiding metaphoric elements contribute to effective writing.
Maintaining objectivity in research findings can be achieved through precise references to data in tables, graphs, and diagrams. The language used in scientific writing should aim for clarity and explicitness to convey information accurately. The choice between personal/informal and impersonal/formal language can impact the objectivity and clarity of the writing.
Simplicity and clarity in writing are crucial for readability. Long sentences and complex structures can hinder understanding. It is recommended to limit sentences to 2-3 clauses and use repetition, signposting, and linking devices for clarity. Examples demonstrate how breaking down complex sentences into shorter ones with linking words can enhance readability.
In another example, the use of linking phrases in sentences improves readability by simplifying the text. Expressing ideas concisely involves avoiding redundancy and unnecessary words. By cutting out irrelevant details and being concise, writing becomes more understandable. Examples show how to transform wordy sentences into more concise ones for better communication.
Academic writing requires adherence to formal rules, especially for non-native writers. Contracted verb forms, common in speech, should be avoided in academic writing. While some scientific publications use contractions for informality, technical-scientific papers should refrain from them. The first person pronoun "I" is discouraged in scientific articles, with "we" or "the team" preferred. However, switching between forms can engage readers effectively.
Hedging in scientific writing involves avoiding absolute statements, overgeneralizations, and toning down the certainty of claims to allow for disagreement. Authors use hedging to maintain objectivity, avoid personal bias, and prevent appearing overly confident. Direct argumentation may be off-putting to some readers, necessitating the use of hedging phrases and techniques for better communication and rapport. These devices are commonly employed in introductions and conclusions to establish a more balanced tone.
Writers should avoid using first person pronouns like "I" and instead use "we" for a more inclusive tone. Tentative verb forms can soften statements, such as using "intended as a contribution" instead of "contribute." Modal verbs like "can" and "might" can indicate uncertainty and soften statements. For example, "It will be of interest to compose" can be hedged to "It might be of interest to compose." Using phrases like "seem to," "appear to," and "tend to" can also add a level of uncertainty to statements.
Hedging statements can help to avoid sounding too direct or over-positive. It is recommended to use phrases like "It is better for the use of equivalence factors for ecotoxic effect to be avoided" instead of "The use of equivalence factors for ecotoxic effect should be rejected." Modal verbs like "may" and "could" can be used to soften statements, such as changing "Our data are expected to show" to "Our data would be expected to show." It is important to discuss the insecurities of the evaluation as a final step in the process.
Using adverbs and attitudinal adverbs can soften statements, especially when making generalizations or avoiding exact numerical data. Signposting devices help connect ideas in a clear and straightforward manner for readers to follow. Noun substitution and addition techniques aid in reinforcing points. Sequencing words and phrases help establish logical relationships between ideas and connect them effectively.
The text discusses various ways to express ideas clearly and effectively in writing. It mentions the importance of reformulating ideas to reinforce their significance or to enhance clarity. Additionally, the text highlights the use of inference to deduce information from previous statements. It emphasizes the significance of highlighting specific words, points, or ideas to draw attention to them. Furthermore, the text discusses the importance of using words and phrases that indicate cause and effect to establish logical connections between different parts of a text.
Overall, the text provides guidance on how to structure sentences and paragraphs to improve the coherence and clarity of written communication. It emphasizes the importance of expressing ideas in different ways to enhance understanding. Additionally, it highlights the significance of using phrases that indicate cause and effect to establish logical connections between different parts of a text. The text also emphasizes the importance of highlighting specific words, points, or ideas to draw attention to them.
The text discusses common phrases for introducing cause and effect, such as "due to," "resulting from," "hence," and "consequently." It also provides example sentences to illustrate these concepts. Additionally, phrases for expressing results and contrasting ideas are presented, along with example sentences to demonstrate their usage.
Phrases like "owing to," "as a result," and "although" are highlighted as ways to introduce cause and effect relationships. Example sentences show how these phrases can be used to explain connections between events. The text also suggests phrases for expressing results, such as "thus" and "therefore," and provides examples to clarify their meaning.
Contrasting ideas are addressed with phrases like "on the one hand...on the other hand" and "despite." Example sentences show how these phrases can be used to present different perspectives or conflicting information. The text emphasizes the importance of using appropriate language to convey cause and effect, results, and contrasting ideas effectively in writing.
The text discusses the transition to a new topic and provides useful phrases for this purpose, such as "with reference to" and "let us now turn to." It also mentions the importance of marking the shift to a different subject in academic writing.
Furthermore, the text emphasizes the process of generalizing information, which involves summarizing what has been discussed previously. It provides phrases like "in general" and "on the whole" to aid in this generalization process.
Additionally, the text highlights the significance of considering different model types and spatial filters in numerical analysis. It mentions that sharp-cut-off type filters were found to be problematic compared to top-hat filters, and the best model/filter combinations were established for model 8 based on a priori testing.
Lastly, the text points out that the values of certain parameters and the solutions obtained are dependent on material properties. It suggests that the values of these parameters influence the overall form of the solutions in the context of the study.
Agreeing and disagreeing are common in spoken English and scientific writing. Writers express agreement or disagreement when comparing findings with other scientists. Phrases like "These results agree with X's research" are used. Verbs and phrases like "We entirely agree with his views" show varying degrees of agreement. Disagreement is expressed with phrases like "We completely disagree with X." Linking phrases like "In actual fact" are used to contradict others. Partial disagreement is shown with phrases like "We agree with X's findings up to a point."
Classifying involves assigning an object or term to a pre-established class based on similarities and differences. The classification model includes elements like the superordinate term, the feature used for classification, and the items grouped together in a class. Language such as "by size" or "according to weight" can be used in classifications to explain how something can be grouped or divided.
In an example provided, low-carbon flat-rolled steel products are classified into categories like hot-rolled sheets, cold-rolled sheets, hot-rolled strip, and tin mill black plate based on their characteristics. Steel castings are also classified commercially into low-carbon steels and medium-carbon steels based on their carbon content. Various sentence patterns and prepositional phrases can be used to describe the classification process.
Comparing involves highlighting similarities and differences between two or more objects, facts, or ideas that share common characteristics. Various sentence structures can be utilized to express different types of comparisons, such as emphasizing similarity or dissimilarity. When emphasizing similarity, phrases like "similar to," "like," "equal to," and "no different from" can be