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Quantitative and qualitative research stem from different philosophical assumptions that shape the ways researchers approach problems and collect and analyze data. Positivism is often considered the traditional scientifi c method, which involves hypothesis testing and objective data gathering to arrive at fi ndings that are systematic, generalizable, and open to replication by other investigators.
-Qualitative research is based on a different philosophical approach, which sees the individual and his or her world as so interconnected that essentially the one has no existence without the other. Furthermore, because researchers do not know in advance how naturally occurring events will unfold or what variables may be important, they do not begin a study with hypotheses.
-Historically, the quantitative approach has dominated education research. For a time, the relationship between quantitative and qualitative
researchers was somewhat adversarial, but gradually there was a trend toward rapprochement as researchers began to see quantitative and qualitative methodology as complementary. They believed that using quantitative methods in highly controlled settings ignored the participants' perspectives and experiences. In the late 20th century, however, scholars began to call for an alternative to the
quantitative approach in educational research (Guba & Lincoln, 1988).
-As an example, assume you want to know the impact of a newly instituted dress code in an inner-city high school. In a quantitative study, you could measure subsequent attendance, frequency of violations of the code, and/or the number of school suspensions for failure to comply. In a qualitative study, you might observe student behavior in classes and also interview groups of students to obtain indepth information on how the new dress code has affected their motivation and learning in the classroom, their self-image, and their general attitude toward school. Numerical data would be gathered and analyzed.
-Whether researchers choose quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods depends not on their preference for one or another but on the suitability of the particular method for what they are studying and what they want to fi nd out.
-A caveat is in order, however. It may be more diffi cult to carry out a mixed methods study because one must have knowledge and an understanding of both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Table 2.1 summarizes briefly the major characteristics of the quantitative and qualitative research approaches.
-We next discuss specifi c types of research included in the broad categories of quantitative and qualitative research.
‌QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

-Quantitative research may be further classifi ed as either experimental or
nonexperimental.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Researchers study variables, which are characteristics that take on different values
across people or things. If test scores and fi nal grades were higher than could be accounted for
by chance in the section receiving online feedback, the researcher could tentatively
conclude that there is evidence the online feedback (treatment or independent variable) contributed to greater learning than the in-class feedback. Using two sections of economics taught by the same professor, the researcher using a random procedure would select one section to receive immediate online feedback about their performance on test questions; the other section would receive feedback during their next class session (independent variables).In the foregoing example, the researcher would attempt to make sure that both groups had the same instructor; that both sections met at the
same time of day but on different Days; that lecture notes, reading's, and exams were the same; and so forth. For example, assume a university researcher wanted to investigate the effect of providing online feedback to students immediately following course examinations. The researcher would compare the two sections' exam scores and their fi nal grades in the course (dependent variables).
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
-In nonexperimental quantitative research, the researcher identifi es variables and may look for relationships among them but does not manipulate the variables.
-The researcher simply compares groups differing on the preexisting independent variable to determine any relationship to the dependent variable.
-Major forms of nonexperimental research are relationship studies including ex post facto and correlational research and survey research.
-Ex post facto research is similar to an experiment, except the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable, which has already occurred in the natural course of events.
-Because there is no manipulation or control of the independent variable, variables in this type of research differ in kind rather than in amount.
-Survey research (also called descriptive research) uses instruments such as questionnaires and interviews to gather information from groups of individuals. For example, an educational researcher might ask a group of parents about what kind of sex education program, if any, they believe schools should provide for middle school students. Researchers in education and the social sciences use surveys widely. We discuss surveys
in Chapter 14.
‌QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative researchers seek to understand a phenomenon by focusing on the total picture rather than breaking it down into variables. For example, social scientists have long observed that differences in educational background alone do not seem to account for the diffi culties black students encounter in a predominantly white university. The goal is a holistic picture and
depth of understanding rather than a numeric analysis of data.
BASIC INTERPRETATIVE STUDIES
-A basic interpretative study provides descriptive accounts targeted to understanding a phenomenon using data that might be collected in a variety of ways, such as interviews, observations, and document review.
CASE STUDIES
-A case study is a type of ethnographic research study that focuses on a single unit, such as one individual, one group, one organization, or one program. Case studies use multiple methods, such as interviews, observation, and archives, to gather data. Education and psychology researchers have used the case study widely.
DOCUMENT OR CONTENT ANALYS IS
-Content analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting recorded material to learn about human behavior. Content analysis is sometimes quantitative, such as when one investigates middle school science textbooks to determine the extent of coverage given to the achievements of minority scientists.
ETHNOGRAPHY
-Ethnography is an in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or social group.
GROUNDED THEORY
-Grounded theory research is designed to develop a theory of social phenomena based on the fi eld data collected in a study. For example, a researcher interested in mainstreaming in elementary school could observea number of classrooms and conduct interviews with teachers and students.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
-Historical research analyzes documents, and artifacts and/or uses interviews with eyewitnesses to gain insight into past events. An educational researcher might want to investigate the trends in kindergarten education in a particular school district from its beginnings to the present. The researcher must establish the authenticity of the documents used, as well as the validity of their contents.
NARRATIVE INQUIRY
-In narrative inquiry, researchers examine the stories people tell about their lives and co-construct a narrative analysis of those stories. Narrative analysis has also been referred to using terms such as life stories.
PHENOMENONOLOGICAL STUDIES
-Phenomenological studies begin with the assumption that multiple realities are rooted in subjects' perspectives. Through unstructured interviews, the investigator explores the subject's thoughts and feelings to elicit the essence of an individual's experience. Thus, an experience has different meanings for each person.
‌TYPICAL STAGES IN RESEARCH
-We focus on these activities in greater
detail in later chapters; here, we briefl y summarize the steps involved.

1. For example, "How do elementary classroom
   teachers deal with aggressive children?" or "How do high school students become alienated from their peers?"For example, "Do children who are taught reading through the wholelanguage approach score higher on reading achievement than children who are taught reading through phonics?" or "What do teachers know about attention defi cit/hyperactivity disorder?"The fi rst step is to select the problem to investigate.


2. The beginning researcher will likely turn to the literature for help in locating and formulating a researchable problem. Reviewing the literature on the problem.


3. Unhypothesized observed relationships among variables may be reported and proposed as topics for future research, but they should not replace the original intent of the study. The design is the researcher's plan for the study, which includes the method to be used, what data will be gathered, where, how, and from whom. Designing the research.


4. Qualitative researchers also have a toolbox of data-gathering techniques, including indepth interviewing, participant observation, and document analysis. Collecting the data.


5. The analysis of the numerical data in quantitative research provides evidence that supports or fails to support the hypothesis of the study. Quantitative data are usually in the form of numbers that researchers analyze using various statistical procedures. Qualitative data generally take the form of words (descriptions, observations, impressions, recordings, and the like).The data collected in research must be analyzed. Analyzing the data.


6. The quantitative researcher typically makes statements about the probability that such
   a fi nding is due to chance and reaches a conclusion about the hypothesis . Qualitative researchers present their interpretations and explanations in narrative form.


7. Reporting results
   -We discuss in detail each of the foregoing stages of a research study in later chapters. These steps are shown in Figure 2.2 .