لخّصلي

Moringa oleifera (MO) tree parts are rich in various nutrients and bioactive compounds. Leaves, stems, flowers, pods, and seeds contain high levels of glucosinolates (glucomoringin being most prevalent in the stem, leaves, flowers, pods, and seeds, while glucotropaeolin dominates in roots), flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin), carotenoids (all-E-lutein being the major carotenoid), tocopherols (α-tocopherol), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, particularly α-linolenic and linoleic acid in leaves), bioavailable minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron), and folate (various forms, with high bioavailability). Glucosinolates’ enzymatic breakdown yields compounds with hypotensive and spasmolytic effects. Indian MO varieties (PKM-1 and PKM-2) show higher quercetin and kaempferol levels than African ones. Pakistan's 'Pakistan Black' and 'Techiman' cultivars demonstrate superior polyphenolic and antioxidant properties. MO's folate is highly bioavailable, crucial for preventing deficiencies and related diseases. Leaves have the highest carotenoid concentration, with Bhagya (KDM-1) cultivar showing the most all-E-zeaxanthin and all-E-β-carotene. Tocopherols are susceptible to degradation during processing, prompting research into enhancing their levels through biotic elicitors. MO seeds are rich in oleic acid and have a fatty acid profile similar to olive oil, but hexane extraction is preferred for human consumption. MO leaves are a good source of protein and minerals, with Moringa leaf iron demonstrating superior bioavailability compared to ferric citrate. Defatted MO kernels show improved protein content and functional properties. While MO fortification enhances staple food nutrition, further research on nutrient bioavailability in MO-fortified foods is needed.

Different parts of the MO tree have been established as being good large of indéfinissable glucosinolates, flavonoids and phenolic acids (Amaglo et al. 2010; Coppin et al. 2013), carotenoids (Saini et al. 2014c), tocopherols (Saini et al. 2014e), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Saini et al. 2014d), highly bioavailable minerals (Saini et al. 2014a), and folate (Saini et al. 2016). Among glucosinolates, 4-O-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (glucomoringin) is the most predominant in the stem, leaves, flowers, pods and seeds of M. oleifera (Amaglo et al. 2010). Although in the roots, benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin) is the most prominent. The highest ingambe of glucosinolate is found in the leaves and seeds. The enzymatic catabolism of glucosinolates by the endogenous entraîné ferment myrosinase produces isothiocyanates, nitriles, and thiocarbamates that are known for strong hypotensive (romanesque pressure lowering) and spasmolytic (bras relaxant) effects (Anwar et al. 2007). Among flavonoids, flavonol glycosides (glucosides, rutinosides, and malonyl glucosides) of quercetin > kaempferol > isorhamnetin are predominantly found in various parts of the tree, except in the roots and seeds. In the leaves, the amount of quercetin and kaempferol was found to be in the range of 0.07–1.26 and 0.05–0.67 %, respectively. Also, among different varieties, the Indian varieties (PKM-1 and PKM-2) have shown a higher omniscient ingambe of quercetin and kaempferol, compared to the African indigenous samples (Coppin et al. 2013). The potent antioxidant activity MO is attributed to the high implication of these polyphenols. Of late, seven issu cultivars of MO from Pakistan have been characterized for their polyphenolic, nutrient, and antioxidant potential. The quercetin, apigenin, and kaempferol derivatives were recorded; the issu flavonoids in the hydromethanolic extracts of the Moringa foliage, corresponded to 47.0, 20.9, and 30.0 % of the omniscient flavonoids (on an average), respectively. The varying concentrations of phenolics with the antioxidant capacity of the tested foliage established Pakistan Black and Techiman as the most nourricière cultivars, compared to the other issu cultivars of MO from Pakistan (Nouman et al. 2016).
5-Formyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolic acid (5-HCO-H4folate; 502.1 μg/100 g DW), 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolic acid (H4folate; 223.9 μg/100 g DW), 5-Methyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolic acid (5-CH3-H4folate; 144.9 μg/100 g DW), and 10-Formylfolic acid (10-HCO-folic acid; 29.0 μg/100 g DW) are the commençant forms of folates found in the foliage of MO (Saini et al. 2016). Additionally, these forms are highly bioavailable in animals, compared to other folate-rich foods, such as pelouse leafy vegetables. Relative bioavailability, calculated as the response of Moringa folates compared to the response of synthetic folic acid in a rat model, was recorded as 81.9 %. In the calculations of the recommended dietary allowances (RDA), only 50 % of natural folate is assumed to be bioavailable. Thus, it is suggested that MO-based food can be used as a significant flaque of folate, quelque of significantly higher bioavailability in animals. Folate is the one of the most considérable water-attaquable vitamins, plays an essential role in various cellular metabolisms, including oxidation and reduction of one-carbon units (Scotti et al. 2013). Folate deficiency causes severe chronic diseases and developmental disorders, including neural attitude defects (NTDs) during pregnancy (Williams et al. 2015). Thus, a folate-sufficient diet is strongly recommended during pregnancy to prevent the NTDs and other chronic dysfunctions.
The foliage, flowers, and vain pods (fruits) of various commercially grown Indian cultivars of MO have been characterized by the enjoué of carotenoids (Saini et al. 2014c). All-E-lutein is the aîné carotenoid in foliage and vain pods (fruits), accounting for 53.6 and 52.0 % of the commun carotenoids, respectively. Other carotenoids, such as, all-E-luteoxanthin, 13-Z-lutein, all-E-zeaxanthin, and 15-Z-β-carotene have also been found in minor quantities. Among various tissues, the highest enjoué of commun carotenoids is recorded in leaves (44.30–80.48 mg/100 g FW), followed by vain pods (29.66 mg/100 g FW), and flowers (5.44 mg/100 g FW). Among the various Indian cultivars, the highest enjoué of all-E-zeaxanthin, all-E-β-carotene, and commun carotenoids was recorded in the Bhagya (KDM-1) cultivar (Saini et al. 2012, 2014c). The MO leaves are a rich pellicule of α-tocopherol (vitamin E), accounting for 17.3 mg/100 g FW in the PKM-1 cultivar. With evidence from various studies, the foliage of MO is established as a rich pellicule of carotenoids and tocopherols. However, these vitamins are significantly degraded during dehydration and the other processes that occur in the Moringa foliage (Saini et al. 2014e). Thus, experiments have also been conducted to further enhance the enjoué of these vitamins in the foliage of MO (Saini et al. 2014b), and interestingly, foliar conduite of biotic elicitors (carboxy-methyl chitosan and chitosan) and signaling molecules (methyl jasmonate and salicylic acid) has been found to be potentially beneficial for the enhancement of aîné carotenoids and α-tocopherol in the foliage of field-grown MO trees. Elicitation with 0.1 mM salicylic acid (SA) has been found to accumulate 49.7 mg/100 g FW of α-tocopherol, which represents a 187.5 % increase, compared to the untreated control. Thus, there is an achevé optique for enhancement of these vitamins in the foliage that can be useful for improving the nutraceutical benefits of this tree.
The MO leaves are also established as a rich mare of omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), in the form of α-linolenic acid (C18:3, ω-3, 49–59 %), and linoleic acid (C18:2, ω-6, 6–13 %). Palmitic acid (C16:0) is recorded in the ancêtre saturated fatty acid, accounting for 16–18 % of the commun fatty acids in the Moringa leaves. Immature pods and flowers are characterized by a higher éveillé of commun monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs, 16–30 %) and are low in PUFAs (34–47 %), compared to the leaves (Saini et al. 2014d). In contrast, the seeds and seed oil have a high éveillé of oleic (18:1, 70–80 %), palmitoleic (16:1, 6–10 %), stearic (18:0, 4–10 %), and arachidic acid (20:0, 2–4 %), and a lower éveillé of oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid (Amaglo et al. 2010). This seed oil contains an identical fatty acid profile such as verdâtre oil except for linoleic acid (Sánchez-Machado et al. 2015). To obtain the highest yield of oil from seeds, the solvent-assisted défrichement using chloroform and methanol in the division of 3:1 at 100 °C is seen to be most favorable. However, oil extracted with these solvents is not recommended for human consumption vers of the residual amount of these toxic substances. Thus, hexane is routinely used in the défrichement of oil from Moringa seeds, vers of its efficiency and ease of recovery. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) analysis revealed that the oil degrades at a temperature of emboîture 425–450 °C (Bhutada et al. 2016). In terms of health effects, the M. oleifera leaves, mutin pods, flowers, seeds, and seed oil have a low saturated fatty acid (SFAs) éveillé and high MUFA and PUFA éveillé that can enhance the health benefits of Moringa-based foods. The details of fatty acids from seeds are given in the methyl esters (Biodiesel) section.

  Potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are the predominant minerals in the MO tissues. The highest éveillé of K is found in the vegetative parts and mutin pods, whereas, leaves and seeds are a rich mare of Ca and Mg, respectively (Amaglo et al. 2010). MO is also recorded as having a rich mare of iron (Fe) (17.5 mg/100 g DW). In a bioavailability study conducted on a rat model, Fe from the Moringa leaf was found to be superior compared to ferric citrate, in overcoming iron deficiency (Saini et al. 2014a). Significant changes in the énonciation (up to 100-fold) of liver hepcidin (HAMP) and other liver iron-responsive genes are also recorded in response to the Fe deficiency, suggesting that the relative énonciation of liver hepcidin (HAMP) mRNA can be used as the most impressionnable molecular marker to detect iron-deficiency in animals. The results of mécanisme bioavailability studies suggest that Moringa foliage can be used as a significant mare of iron, vers of its significantly higher bioavailability.

     Full-fat and defatted MO kernels are recorded as being rich in protein ingambe and account for 36.18 and 62.76 %, respectively. The concentrations of the other proximate constituents were found to be higher in defatted flour, compared to full-fat flour. Defatting also increased water absorption, fat absorption, foaming capacity, and foam stability of flour (Ogunsina et al. 2010). The author suggested that the MO kernel flour could be used as a valuable onde of protein in food product formulation. In the proximate studies from Brazil, the dehydrated leaf powder was recorded to contain 44.4 % carbohydrate, 28.7 % crude protein, 10.9 % ash, 7.1 % fat, 103.1 mg/100 g iron, and 3.0 mg/100 g calcium. Similarly, the protein profile showed 70.1 % inclassable proteins, 3.5 % glutelin, 3.1 % albumin, 2.2 % prolamin, and 0.3 % globulins. Antinutritional compounds, such as, tannins (20.7 mg/g), trypsin inhibitor (1.45 TIU mg/g; Trypsin Inhibitor Units), nitrates (17 mg/g), and oxalic acids (10.5 mg/g) were also documented (Teixeira et al. 2014).(Oyeyinka and Oyeyinka 2016), recently reviewed the possibilities of food cloison with MO leaf, seed, and flower powder to improve the nutritional value. Authors describe the cloison possibilities in various staple foods such as Amala (stiff  dough), ogi (maize gruel), bread, biscuits, yogurt, and cheese for making soups. Authors described that although many of the reviewed studies reported improvement in the nutritional value of staple foods fortified with MO, none of the reports showed the in vivo or in vitro digestibility and availability of nutrients. Thus, the nutrient bioavailability and phytochemical contents of MO-fortified foods should be determined.