لخّصلي

Human language, the focus of linguistics, possesses unique characteristics differentiating it from other communication systems. Nine key properties are highlighted: sounds (primarily vocal, with speech preceding writing), systematicity (structured rules governing sound and word order), linearity (sequential arrangement of elements), arbitrariness (lack of inherent connection between form and meaning, though onomatopoeia is an exception), productivity (creative capacity for limitless new utterances), displacement (referencing things absent from the immediate context), duality (two levels of structure: meaningless sounds combining to form meaningful units), discreteness (distinct units of sound perceived as separate), and cultural transmission (language acquisition through learning, not genetics). These properties contribute to language's flexibility and unique communicative power.

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Lecture 01: Properties of Language

In fact, there are many characteristics that distinguish language (the subject matter of linguistics) and make it a unique and distinguished communication system. These characteristics allow us to differentiate it from any other human or non-human language. Among the specific properties that contribute to the flexibility and uniqueness of the language system, we can mention nine major ones: sounds, systematicity, linearity, arbitrariness, productivity, displacement, duality, discreteness, and cultural transmission.

1. Sounds

Human natural language is primarily a system of vocal communication. Language is primarily spoken; chronologically speaking, writing came after speech. In fact, 20th-century linguists emphasized the importance of speech and its priority over writing.

2. Systematicity

Languages are systems, so they are structured. The sounds of a language are combined in specific ways, following specific rules. They are not arranged randomly to form words. Similarly, the order of words in sentences is not haphazard but follows a structured set of rules. There is also a system that relates sounds to meanings.

3. Linearity

Language is linear; it comes out either as a succession of sounds or written symbols. Elements are arranged one after the other in a linear sequence.

4. Arbitrariness

Arbitrariness in language means that there is no logical link or connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between linguistic signs and the objects they refer to. This property of human language is often contrasted with sign languages and other semiotic systems. The relationship between the words “water” (English) or “eau” (French) and the chemical compound H₂O is arbitrary and unpredictable. In other words, it is impossible to predict meaning based on form, and vice versa. Similarly, arbitrariness exists at the grammatical and phonological levels of particular languages, as each language has its own set of rules.

However, some rare words in all languages appear to "echo" the sounds of the objects or actions they indicate. Words like 'cuckoo,' 'murmur,' 'crash,' and 'splash' are called onomatopoeic words. The relationship between form and meaning in such words is not entirely arbitrary, as they seem to reflect properties of the non-linguistic world. Nevertheless, in most languages, onomatopoeic words are relatively rare, and the vast majority of words are, in fact, arbitrary.

5. Productivity

Productivity refers to the creative capacity of language users to produce and understand an unlimited number of new utterances. Language users are not restricted to a fixed set of sentences or expressions; instead, they can create and comprehend phrases they have never heard before. For example, a child can rapidly acquire the grammatical rules of their native language and then use them to generate sentences that are entirely new.

Productivity is a unique feature of human linguistic systems and distinguishes human language from other communication systems used by animals. Even in sign languages, this feature is present, allowing signers to express new ideas dynamically. In other words, language is not random or limited but is a creative means of conveying meaning.

6. Displacement

Displacement is another distinctive property of human language. This property allows speakers to refer to things that are not present in the immediate physical environment. With displacement, we can talk about past and future events, distant places, abstract ideas, and hypothetical situations. Thanks to displacement, people can imagine fictional stories, talk about imaginary things and places, and even create visions of the future.

7. Duality

Duality (also known as double articulation, after the French linguist André Martinet) refers to the property of having two distinct levels of structure:

1. 
   

   The secondary level (lower level): Language is organized as a sequence of speech sounds or written symbols that, by themselves, do not carry any meaning but are essential for forming meaningful units such as morphemes and words.

   
   


2. 
   

   The primary level (higher level): When these meaningless units are combined, they create an infinite number of meaningful expressions.

   
   

This is one of the most economical features of human language, as a limited number of elements can produce an extremely large number of utterances.

8. Discreteness

Discreteness is the opposite of continuity or continuous variation. In the case of language, discrete elements such as speech sounds (phonemes) are perceived as distinct units rather than a continuous spectrum of sounds. In phonology, a significant distinction exists between individual speech sounds, and this distinction is crucial for meaning. This means that not all variations in sound alter meaning, but only those that are recognized as significant within a particular language.

9. Cultural Transmission

Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the ability to speak a particular language is passed from one generation to another through learning rather than genetic inheritance. This means that we acquire the language we speak from our environment rather than being born with it. Because of this, children raised in isolation cannot instinctively develop language; they need exposure to a linguistic environment to acquire it.

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