لخّصلي

Introduction
The Mediterranean population of the Greater Flamingo is considered to be a metapopulation with a relatively few breeding colonies (Balkiz 2006), and is estimated at between 100,000 and 165,000 (Childress 2005). North Africa has traditionally been perceived as a wintering ground or a kind of "crèche" for immature flamingos (Isenmann and Moali 2000). Past breeding, recorded sporadically in Tunisia (Castan 1960, Domergue 1951-52) and Morocco (Robin 1966, 1968, Panouse 1958) has not altered this commonly held perception. Following vigorous conservation efforts in southern Europe (Johnson 1983, 1997, 2000), a marked increase in the number of Greater Flamingos was observed in Algeria. This led us to begin a long-term survey of the wetlands complex of the Hauts Plateaux, which revealed that the region is an important wintering and breeding site for waterbirds (Boulkhssaïm et al. 2006a, Samraoui et al. 2006b, Samraoui et al. in press). Protective measures are needed for the Hauts Plateaux wetlands complex, as these habitats are threatened with hydrological changes and human encroachment. As a flagship species and an icon, the Greater Flamingo may facilitate education programs and help build public support for conservation efforts. In this paper, we review past and current research efforts to monitor the population of Greater Flamingo, especially breeding colonies, across Algeria in order to devise and implement adequate conservation measures.

Study Area
In 2002, we began a systematic survey of all major wetlands in the northeastern Hauts Plateaux, Algeria (Figure 1). Our search for breeding colonies and foraging sites focused mainly on the salt lakes complex of Oum El Bouaghi, but also included adjacent complexes like that El Eulma, Chott Hodna and in northern Sahara.

Figure 1. Map of study area

Material & Methods
We first concentrated on evaluating the status of the Greater Flamingo in the eastern part of Algeria, and mapping its spatial and temporal distribution. Diurnal activity budgets and the nature of trophic resources at key sites were investigated in order to determine how these wetlands were used by the Greater Flamingo, and to identify important environmental factors regulating the abundance and distribution of the species. Part of our effort was devoted to searching for breeding colonies. Once found, a colony like that of Ezzemoul had to be physically protected and broader conservation measures (e.g. participative approach with local people, education and exhibitions) had to be initiated. The reproductive ecology of the Greater Flamingo was studied at Ezzemoul in 2005 and 2006, and a banding program was started aimed at collaboratively attempting to study the dynamics of the Greater Flamingo metapopulation in northwest Africa and the Mediterranean Basin. Chicks were ringed with PVC bands, with a specific code for Algeria. Colonies were approached using mobile hides and bands were read using spotting scopes.

Results

Numbers and habitat use
Our censuses revealed that the Algerian population far exceeds the previous estimates of 5,000 birds (Isenmann and Moali 2000). When only the eastern part of Algeria is taken into account, numbers may, under favorable conditions, fluctuate between 30,000 and 50,000 individuals. It was not unusual to count over 30,000 flamingos in some sites (Chott Merouane: 30,000, Garaet Tarf: 40,000 on 15/12/2004; Chott Ank El Djmel: 30 000 on 6/9/2005). Less regular counts in western Algeria exceed 12,000 flamingos. The Greater Flamingo preferentially uses saline habitats and to a lesser extent brackish and saline habitats. Counts of the species rarely exceed 1,000 individuals in coastal wetlands where freshwater habitats are the majority.
Feeding was the dominant diurnal activity at Guelif and Tazougart (Ouldjaoui et al. 2004) and the Sahara (Houhamdi et al. 2008). Detailed behavioural studies are currently underway. A systematic sampling of the macroinvertebrates of the salt lakes across Algeria has indicated that the carrying capacity of these habitats is high and is mainly based on “pulses” of fairy shrimps: Artemia salina, Branchinella spinosa and Branchinectella media, which can occur at a huge density (Samraoui et al. 2006a).

Breeding
A breeding colony of the Greater Flamingo at Garaet Ezzemoul was discovered in March 2004. The colony, known to local people since at least the early part of the twentieth century, was subject to egg pilfering, and breeding failed in 2003 and 2004 (Saheb et al. 2006). Three separate breeding attempts were recorded at sites other than Ezzemoul. In each case, nests (Bazer Sakra 2007, El Goléa 2006 or earlier) or egg fragments and witnesses (Chott Hodna 2004 or earlier) confirmed the breeding attempts. Low water levels and human interference were most likely the cause of the reproductive failure. Physical protection (guards) of the Ezzemoul colony led to the first recorded successful breeding in Algeria in 2005 (Samraoui et al. 2006b) and 2006 (Samraoui et al. in press). Over 8,500 chicks fledged in the two years combined. Of these, 208 were banded in 2006 (Boulkhssaïm et al. 2006b), and their dispersal was monitored with the aid of observers around the Mediterranean.
Special efforts have been made to monitor the dispersal of the Greater Flamingo across Algerian wetlands, and in the last few years, an increase in the number of bands read is apparent (Figures 2 and 3). Preliminary results (Figure 4) indicate that banded birds originate mainly from the Camargue (France) and Fuente de Piedra (Spain). The distribution pattern of these birds is possibly structured into flyways but this aspect requires confirmation. Over 50% of the banded chicks at Ezzemoul have so far been observed in several localities in southern Europe (Portugal to Italy) and North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) (Figure 5). Four banded chicks have been recorded dead at Ezzemoul, apparently unable to fly to other sites when Ezzemoul dried out in the late summer of 2006.

Figure 2: Total number of banded Greater Flamingos sighted in the Maghreb (1977-2007), including duplicate band sightings.

Participation of local people in the protection of the Ezzemoul colony and the banding operation ensured that egg-pilfering is no longer considered the main threat. Special efforts were devoted to education, through exhibitions aimed towards school children, managers and decision makers. Capacity building to enable local universities to undertake wetland management is also considered a priority, and several lectures and courses on conservation as well as field trips have been organized.

Figure 3: Number of unduplicated Greater Flamingo bands recorded in the Maghreb (1977-2007).

Discussion
Our results have led to a reassessment of the status of the Greater Flamingo in Algeria. The program of reading color bands has led to a substantial revision of our understanding of the role of North African wetlands, which could play a key role in the dynamics of the Mediterranean flamingo metapopulation. Over the past two years, the movements of chicks banded at Ezzemoul were monitored across the region, and they have already revealed extensive exchange between the Ezzemoul, European colonies and other North African regions (Samraoui et al. in press). In the near future, we will be able to assess the extent of gene flow of Greater Flamingos across Mediterranean colonies.

Figure 4: Origin of the bands read in Algeria (1977-2007) with the following abbreviations: AND = Andalusia/Spain, EBR = Ebro Delta/Spain, FRP= France, ITA = Continental Italy, KAD = Turkey, LRZ = Algeria, SAR = Sardinia).

Despite the optimistic trend displayed by the Greater Flamingo population, the future of this species and that of its habitats is far from secure. At Ezzemoul an unmanaged site and where the onset of breeding is relatively late (early May), preliminary data have shown that survival of chicks is tied to the length of the hydroperiod. Damming the wadi that feed the salt lakes is now considered the major threat to the maintenance of these important habitats, but studies in the highly managed Camargue have also shown that breeding of the Greater Flamingo remains sensitive to large-scale climatic variations (Béchet and Johnson 2008), thus any hydrological changes (climatic or man-induced) could put the future of the Ezzemoul colony in jeopardy. The formal recognition of the Greater Flamingo’s breeding and foraging habitats across North Africa as Ramsar Sites or parts of Biosphere Reserves should afford them effective protection, although increases in demography or climate changes, by putting more pressure on scarce water resources, may significantly and negatively affect their survival.

Figure 5: Records of flamingos banded at Ezzemoul (Italy includes continental Italy, Sicily and Sardinia).

Acknowledgements
We thank J. Amat for making valuable suggestions to the original text. We are most grateful for the generous support of the Algerian Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, the C.R.S.T.R.A., the O.N.E.D.D. and the MAVA foundation. We thank Luc Hoffmann and the Station Biologique de La Tour du Valat for free access to the Station’s library.