Encyclopedia Britann...

نتيجة التلخيص (50%)

Encyclopedia Britannica Ask the ChatbotGames & QuizzesHistory & SocietyScience & TechBiographiesAnimals & NatureGeography & TravelArts & CultureMoneyVideos World History Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts World War II 1939-1945 Also known as: Second World War, WWII Written by , oAll Fact-checked by Last Updated: Oct 27, 2024 o Article History World War II: Germany invading Poland World War II: Germany invading Poland Germany invading Poland, September 1, 1939.Stuka 2 of 2 StukaGerman Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive-bomber. The six armoured, or panzer, divisions of the Wehrmacht comprised some 2,400 tanks. And though Germany would subsequently expand its tank forces during the first years of the war, it was not the number of tanks that Germany had (the Allies had almost as many in September 1939) but the fact of their being organized into divisions and operated as such that was to prove decisive. In accordance with the doctrines of General Heinz Guderian, the German tanks were used in massed formations in conjunction with motorized artillery to punch holes in the enemy line and to isolate segments of the enemy, which were then surrounded and captured by motorized German infantry divisions while the tanks ranged forward to repeat the process: deep drives into enemy territory by panzer divisions were thus followed by mechanized infantry and foot soldiers. These tactics were supported by dive bombers that attacked and disrupted the enemy's supply and communications lines and spread panic and confusion in its rear, thus further paralyzing its defensive capabilities. Mechanization was the key to the German blitzkrieg, or "lightning war," so named because of the unprecedented speed and mobility that were its salient characteristics.Also called: Second World War Date: September 3, 1939 - September 2, 1945 Participants: Canada China France Germany India Italy Japan Soviet Union United Kingdom United States Major Events: Battle of Crete atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Battle of Saipan Battle of Moscow Invasion of Poland Key People: Winston Churchill Adolf Hitler Alessandro Pertini Franklin D. Roosevelt Edward O'Hare On the Web: Academia - Forgotten alliance: Hitler-Stalin pact of 1939 and the outcome of Second World War (Oct.In a secret protocol of this pact, the Germans and the Soviets agreed that Poland should be divided between them, with the western third of the country going to Germany and the eastern two-thirds being taken over by the U.S.S.R.

Axis initiative and Allied reaction The outbreak of war By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and occupy Poland.It resulted in the extension of the Soviet Union's power to nations of eastern Europe, enabled a communist movement to eventually achieve power in China, and marked the decisive shift of power in the world away from the states of western Europe and toward the United States and the Soviet Union.In September 1939 the Allies, namely Great Britain, France, and Poland, were together superior in industrial resources, population, and military manpower, but the German military, or Wehrmacht, because of its armament, training, doctrine, discipline, and fighting spirit, was the most efficient and effective fighting force for its size in the world.Allied air strength, September 1939 aircraft British French Polish bombers 536 463 200 fighters 608 634 300 reconnaissance 96 444 -- coastal command 216 -- -- fleet air arm 204 194 --

Great Britain, which was held back by delays in the rearmament program, was producing one modern fighter in 1939, the Hurricane.News o Italy's government pays homage to fascist defeat in key WWII battle, sparking opposition criticism o Oct. 26, 2024, 2:06 AM ET (ABC News (U.S.)) World War II, conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939-45.Britannica Quiz Pop Quiz: 17 Things to Know About World War II Forces and resources of the European combatants, 1939 Adolf Hitler Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler reviewing German troops in Poland, September 1939.Against Germany's 100 infantry divisions and six armoured divisions, France had 90 infantry divisions in metropolitan France, Great Britain had 10 infantry divisions, and Poland had 30 infantry divisions, 12 cavalry brigades, and one armoured brigade (Poland had also 30 reserve infantry divisions, but these could not be mobilized quickly).The war was in many respects a continuation, after an uneasy 20-year hiatus, of the disputes left unsettled by World War I. The 40,000,000-50,000,000 deaths incurred in World War II make it the bloodiest conflict, as well as the largest war, in history.The principal belligerents were the Axis powers--Germany, Italy, and Japan--and the Allies--France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China.Atomic bombing of Hiroshima 2 of 2 Atomic bombing of HiroshimaA gigantic mushroom cloud rising above Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, after a U.S. aircraft dropped an atomic bomb on the city, immediately killing more than 70,000 people.View archival footage of German troops invading Poland and forcing Europe into war View archival footage of German troops invading Poland and forcing Europe into warIn September 1939 the Germans overrun Poland, forcing all of Europe into a state of war.News of the signing, on August 25, of a formal treaty of mutual assistance between Great Britain and Poland (to supersede a previous though temporary agreement) caused him to postpone the start of hostilities for a few days.Hitler intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility that the Soviet Union would resist the invasion of its western neighbour.Allied divisions had a firepower only slightly greater than that of World War I. Germany had six armoured divisions in September 1939; the Allies, though they had a large number of tanks, had no armoured divisions at that time.World War II events 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 German aircraft production by year year combat types other types 1933 0 368 1934 840 1,128 1935 1,823 1,360 1936 2,530 2,582 1937 2,651 2,955 1938 3,350 1,885 1939 4,733 3,562 The standardization of engines and airframes gave the Luftwaffe an advantage over its opponents.What countries fought in World War II?

النص الأصلي

Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, and Joseph Stalin
1 of 2
Winston Churchill, Harry Truman, and Joseph StalinBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. Pres. Harry S. Truman, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin meeting at Potsdam, Germany, in July 1945 to discuss the postwar order in Europe.
Atomic bombing of Hiroshima
2 of 2
Atomic bombing of HiroshimaA gigantic mushroom cloud rising above Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, after a U.S. aircraft dropped an atomic bomb on the city, immediately killing more than 70,000 people.
Along with World War I, World War II was one of the great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. It resulted in the extension of the Soviet Union’s power to nations of eastern Europe, enabled a communist movement to eventually achieve power in China, and marked the decisive shift of power in the world away from the states of western Europe and toward the United States and the Soviet Union.

Also called: Second World War
Date: September 3, 1939 - September 2, 1945
Participants: Canada China France Germany India Italy Japan Soviet Union United Kingdom United States
Major Events: Battle of Crete atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Battle of Saipan Battle of Moscow Invasion of Poland
Key People: Winston Churchill Adolf Hitler Alessandro Pertini Franklin D. Roosevelt Edward O’Hare
On the Web: Academia - Forgotten alliance: Hitler-Stalin pact of 1939 and the outcome of Second World War (Oct. 23, 2024)
(Read Sir John Keegan’s Britannica entry on the Normandy Invasion.)

Axis initiative and Allied reaction
The outbreak of war
By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and occupy Poland. Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by Germany. Hitler intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility that the Soviet Union would resist the invasion of its western neighbour. Secret negotiations led on August 23–24 to the signing of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact in Moscow. In a secret protocol of this pact, the Germans and the Soviets agreed that Poland should be divided between them, with the western third of the country going to Germany and the eastern two-thirds being taken over by the U.S.S.R.

Having achieved this cynical agreement, the other provisions of which stupefied Europe even without divulgence of the secret protocol, Hitler thought that Germany could attack Poland with no danger of Soviet or British intervention and gave orders for the invasion to start on August 26. News of the signing, on August 25, of a formal treaty of mutual assistance between Great Britain and Poland (to supersede a previous though temporary agreement) caused him to postpone the start of hostilities for a few days. He was still determined, however, to ignore the diplomatic efforts of the western powers to restrain him. Finally, at 12:40 pm on August 31, 1939, Hitler ordered hostilities against Poland to start at 4:45 the next morning. The invasion began as ordered. In response, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, at 11:00 am and at 5:00 pm, respectively. World War II had begun.

Germany invades Poland, September 1, 1939, using 45 German divisions and aerial attack. By September 20, only Warsaw held out, but final surrender came on September 29.
Britannica Quiz
Pop Quiz: 17 Things to Know About World War II
Forces and resources of the European combatants, 1939
Adolf Hitler
Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler reviewing German troops in Poland, September 1939.
In September 1939 the Allies, namely Great Britain, France, and Poland, were together superior in industrial resources, population, and military manpower, but the German military, or Wehrmacht, because of its armament, training, doctrine, discipline, and fighting spirit, was the most efficient and effective fighting force for its size in the world. The index of military strength in September 1939 was the number of divisions that each nation could mobilize. Against Germany’s 100 infantry divisions and six armoured divisions, France had 90 infantry divisions in metropolitan France, Great Britain had 10 infantry divisions, and Poland had 30 infantry divisions, 12 cavalry brigades, and one armoured brigade (Poland had also 30 reserve infantry divisions, but these could not be mobilized quickly). A division contained from 12,000 to 25,000 men.

It was the qualitative superiority of the German infantry divisions and the number of their armoured divisions that made the difference in 1939. The firepower of a German infantry division far exceeded that of a French, British, or Polish division; the standard German division included 442 machine guns, 135 mortars, 72 antitank guns, and 24 howitzers. Allied divisions had a firepower only slightly greater than that of World War I. Germany had six armoured divisions in September 1939; the Allies, though they had a large number of tanks, had no armoured divisions at that time.

German tanks
1 of 2
German tanksGerman Pz. IV (foreground) and Pz. III (background) tanks, 1942.
Stuka
2 of 2
StukaGerman Junkers Ju 87 “Stuka” dive-bomber.
The six armoured, or panzer, divisions of the Wehrmacht comprised some 2,400 tanks. And though Germany would subsequently expand its tank forces during the first years of the war, it was not the number of tanks that Germany had (the Allies had almost as many in September 1939) but the fact of their being organized into divisions and operated as such that was to prove decisive. In accordance with the doctrines of General Heinz Guderian, the German tanks were used in massed formations in conjunction with motorized artillery to punch holes in the enemy line and to isolate segments of the enemy, which were then surrounded and captured by motorized German infantry divisions while the tanks ranged forward to repeat the process: deep drives into enemy territory by panzer divisions were thus followed by mechanized infantry and foot soldiers. These tactics were supported by dive bombers that attacked and disrupted the enemy’s supply and communications lines and spread panic and confusion in its rear, thus further paralyzing its defensive capabilities. Mechanization was the key to the German blitzkrieg, or “lightning war,” so named because of the unprecedented speed and mobility that were its salient characteristics. Tested and well-trained in maneuvers, the German panzer divisions constituted a force with no equal in Europe.

The German Air Force, or Luftwaffe, was also the best force of its kind in 1939. It was a ground-cooperation force designed to support the Army, but its planes were superior to nearly all Allied types. In the rearmament period from 1935 to 1939 the production of German combat aircraft steadily mounted. The table shows the production of German aircraft by years.

World War II events
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
German aircraft production by year
year combat types other types
1933 0 368
1934 840 1,128
1935 1,823 1,360
1936 2,530 2,582
1937 2,651 2,955
1938 3,350 1,885
1939 4,733 3,562
The standardization of engines and airframes gave the Luftwaffe an advantage over its opponents. Germany had an operational force of 1,000 fighters and 1,050 bombers in September 1939. The Allies actually had more planes in 1939 than Germany did, but their strength was made up of many different types, some of them obsolescent. The corresponding table shows the number of first-line military aircraft available to the Allies at the outbreak of war.

Allied air strength, September 1939
aircraft British French Polish
bombers 536 463 200
fighters 608 634 300
reconnaissance 96 444 —
coastal command 216 — —
fleet air arm 204 194 —

Great Britain, which was held back by delays in the rearmament program, was producing one modern fighter in 1939, the Hurricane. A higher-performance fighter, the Spitfire, was just coming into production and did not enter the air war in numbers until 1940.

View archival footage of German troops invading Poland and forcing Europe into war
View archival footage of German troops invading Poland and forcing Europe into warIn September 1939 the Germans overrun Poland, forcing all of Europe into a state of war. From “The Second World War: Prelude to Conflict” (1963), a documentary by Encyclopædia Britannica Educational Corporation.
See all videos for this article
The value of the French Air Force in 1939 was reduced by the number of obsolescent planes in its order of battle: 131 of the 634 fighters and nearly all of the 463 bombers. France was desperately trying to buy high-performance aircraft in the United States in 1939.

Bismarck battleship
Bismarck battleshipThe Bismarck shortly after commissioning in 1940.
At sea the odds against Germany were much greater in September 1939 than in August 1914, since the Allies in 1939 had many more large surface warships than Germany had. At sea, however, there was to be no clash between the Allied and the German massed fleets but only the individual operation of German pocket battleships and commerce raiders.

Technology of war, 1918–39
Maginot Line
Maginot LineMain entrance to the Schoenenbourg Fort on the Maginot Line, Bas-Rhin department, Alsace region, France.
When World War I ended, the experience of it seemed to vindicate the power of the defensive over the offensive. It was widely believed that a superiority in numbers of at least three to one was required for a successful offensive. Defensive concepts underlay the construction of the Maginot Line between France and Germany and of its lesser counterpart, the Siegfried Line, in the interwar years. Yet by 1918 both of the requirements for the supremacy of the offensive were at hand: tanks and planes. The battles of Cambrai (1917) and Amiens (1918) had proved that when tanks were used in masses, with surprise, and on firm and open terrain, it was possible to break through any trench system.

The Germans learned this crucial, though subtle, lesson from World War I. The Allies on the other hand felt that their victory confirmed their methods, weapons, and leadership, and in the interwar period the French and British armies were slow to introduce new weapons, methods, and doctrines. Consequently, in 1939 the British Army did not have a single armoured division, and the French tanks were distributed in small packets throughout the infantry divisions. The Germans, by contrast, began to develop large tank formations on an effective basis after their rearmament program began in 1935.

In the air the technology of war had also changed radically between 1918 and 1939. Military aircraft had increased in size, speed, and range, and for operations at sea, aircraft carriers were developed that were capable of accompanying the fastest surface ships. Among the new types of planes developed was the dive bomber, a plane designed for accurate low-altitude bombing of enemy strong points as part of the tank-plane-infantry combination. Fast low-wing monoplane fighters were developed in all countries; these aircraft were essentially flying platforms for eight to 12 machine guns installed in the wings. Light and medium bombers were also developed that could be used for the strategic bombardment of cities and military strongpoints. The threat of bomber attacks on both military and civilian targets led directly to the development of radar in England. Radar made it possible to determine the location, the distance, and the height and speed of a distant aircraft no matter what the weather was. By December 1938 there were five radar stations established on the coast of England, and 15 additional stations were begun. So, when war came in September 1939, Great Britain had a warning chain of radar stations that could tell when hostile planes were approaching.

لخّصلي

نتيجة التلخيص (50%)

النص الأصلي

تلخيص النصوص العربية والإنجليزية أونلاين

آخر التلخيصات