Lakhasly

Chapter One

Drama: Introduction

Drama is the act of portraying a story in front of an audience.How small a thing will ruin or save one!". This moral of the story may be seen as a critique of the importance of social class, since the story demonstrates that a simple accident or circumstance forced upon a person (since the necklace could have been stolen purposefully) can doom a person to a completely different way of life. At the same time, Maupassant demonstrates that social class does not correlate to happiness, as Mme. Loisel seems more content in her life and her marriage when in the poor class than when behaving either as a middle- or upper-class

woman. Themes: wd >> 1- The Deceptiveness of Appearances:

The reality of Mathilde's situation is that she is neither wealthy nor part of the social class of which she feels she is a deserving member, but Mathilde does everything in her power to make her life appear different from how it is. She lives in an illusory world where her actual life does not match the ideal life she has in her head--she believes that her beauty and charm make her worthy of greater things. The party is a triumph because for the first time, her appearance matches the reality of her life. She is prettier than the other women, sought after by the men, and generally admired and flattered by all. Her life, in the few short hours of the party, is as she feels it should be. However, beneath this rightness and seeming match of appearances and reality is the truth that her appearance took a great deal of scheming and work. The bliss of her evening was not achieved without angst, and the reality of her appearance is much different than it seems. Her wealth and class are simply illusions, and other people are

easily deceived. The deceptiveness of appearances is highlighted by Madame Forestier's necklace, which appears to be made of diamonds but is actually nothing more than costume jewelry. The fact that it comes from Madame Forestier's jewelry box gives it the illusion of richness and value; had Monsieur Loisel suggested that Mathilde wear fake jewels, she surely would have scoffed at the idea, just as she scoffed at his suggestion to wear flowers. Furthermore, the fact that Madame

Forestier--in Mathilde's view, the epitome of class and wealth--has a necklace made of fake jewels suggests that even the wealthiest members of society pretend to have more wealth than they actually have. Both women are ultimately deceived by appearances: Madame Forestier does not tell Mathilde that the diamonds are fake, and Mathilde does not tell Madame Forestier that she has replaced the necklace. The fact that the necklace changes-- unnoticed--from worthless to precious suggests that true value is ultimately dependent

on perception and that appearances can easily deceive. -Th inger of mi:

Mathilde's perception of herself as a martyr leads her to take unwise, self-serving actions. The Loisels live, appropriately, on the Rue des Martyrs, and Mathilde feels she must suffer through a life that is well beneath what she deserves. Unable to appreciate any aspect of her life, including her devoted husband, she is pained by her feeling that her beauty and charm are being wasted. When Mathilde loses the necklace and sacrifices the next ten years of her life to pay back the debts she incurred from buying a replacement, her feeling of being a

martyr intensifies. She undertakes the hard work with grim determination, behaving more like a martyr than ever before. Her beauty is once again being wasted; this work eventually erases it completely. Her lot in life has gotten worse, and Mathilde continues to believe she has gotten less than she deserves, never acknowledging the fact that she is responsible for her own fate. Her belief in her martyrdom is, in a way, the only thing she has left. When Madame Forestier reveals that the

necklace was worthless, Mathilde's sacrifices also become worthless, : and her status as a martyr--however dubious--is taken away entirely. At the end of the story, Mathilde is left with nothing. Whereas Mathilde sees herself as a martyr but is actually very far from it, Monsieur Loisel himself is truly a martyr, constantly sacrificing his desires and, ultimately, his wellbeing for Mathilde's sake. He gives up his desire for a gun so that Mathilde can buy a dress, and he uncomplainingly mortgages his future to replace the necklace Mathilde loses. Forced to sacrifice his happiness and years of his life to accommodate Mathilde's selfish desires, he is the one who truly

becomes a martyr. 3- The Perceived Power of Objects:

believes that objects have the power to change her life, but when she finally gets two of the objects she desires most, the dress and necklace, her happiness is fleeting at best. The beautiful objects in other women's homes and absence of such objects in her own home make her feel like an outsider, fated to envy other women. The things she does have--a comfortable home, hot soup, a loving husband--she disdains. Mathilde effectively relinquishes control of her happiness to objects that she does not even possess, and her obsession with the trappings of the wealthy leads to her perpetual discontent. When she finally acquires the dress and necklace, those objects seem to have a transformative power. She is finally the woman she believes she was meant to be--happy, admired, and envied. She has gotten what she wanted, and her life has changed accordingly. However, when she : loses the necklace, the dream dissolves instantly, and her life becomes even worse than before. In reality, the power does not lie with the objects but within herself. In contrast to Mathilde, Madame Forestier infuses objects with little power. Her wealth enables her to purchase what she likes, but more important, it also affords her the vantage point to realize that these objects are not the most important things in the world. She seems casual about, and even careless with her possessions: when Mathilde brazenly requests to borrow her striking diamond necklace, she agrees. And later, when Mathilde informs her that the necklace in her possession is actually extremely valuable, she seems more rattled by the idea that Mathilde has sacrificed her life unnecessarily. The fact that Madame Forestier owned fake jewels in the first place suggests that she understands that objects are only as powerful as people perceive them to be. For her, fake jewels can be just as beautiful and

striking as real diamonds if one sees them as such. 4-The Necklace:

In The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant, we have the theme of materialism, insecurity, discontent, happiness, sacrifice, selflessness, desperation and humility. Taken from his The Complete Short Stories collection the story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator and after reading the story the reader realises that de Maupassant may be exploring the theme of materialism. Mme Loisel believes or at least fantasizes about the fact that her life would be better if her circumstances were improved by the wealthy finery that

she imagines others to have. At no stage does she consider herself to be fortunate in any way. To have a loving husband and a household that is not in debt. She longs for a different type of life one that is driven by materialism. It is as though Mme Loisel believes that should she have what others (wealthy people) have she will be happy. That her life will improve. If anything there is a sense that Mme Loisel is insecure in the life that she lives and can only see herself happy should

she have material possessions. At no stage in the story apart from when Mme Loisel is paying off the debt does the reader suspect that she is content in any way. Throughout the story she is driven by her desire to own things. Considering this to be the marker for happiness. Mme Loisel appears to

believe that the more things that she owns the happier she will be.

De Maupassant also appears to be exploring the theme of sacrifice. Rather than buying himself the gun that he had saved for Monsieur Loisel gives the money (four hundred francs) to Mme Loisel to buy a dress for the ball. He acts selflessly in order to allow Mme Loisel feel comfortable before going to the ball. He also borrows the thirty six thousand francs need to replace the necklace which 38 suggests not only that Monsieur Loisel is making another sacrifice but he is also again acting selflessly. Helping Mme Loisel in order that she is not accused of being a thief by Mme Forestier. Mme Loisel also makes a sacrifice by selling her house and moving to smaller accommodation and finding menial work to do in order to repay the debt incurred by borrowing the money for the new necklace. It may also be important to remember that the dramatic change in the Loisel's life has been

caused by Mme Loisel's desire to be somebody she is not. She is a lower middle class woman who attempted to live her life (for one day)

as an upper class woman. If anything Mme Loisel's desperation to be somebody she is not has resulted in her life changing dramatically and for the worse. Though she does appear to be happy when she is working and paying off the debt for the necklace. Whereas at the beginning of the story she dreamt of living a wealthier more materialistic life and was unhappy. It may also be important that Mme Forestier's necklace is paste (fake) because despite it being fake Mme Forestier is happy. She is not as materialistically driven as Mme Loisel. Which may be the point that de Maupassant is attempting to make. He might be suggesting through Mme Forestier's character that an individual can be happy regardless of what they may own. Something that only appears to dawn on Mme Loisel after she and Monsieur Loisel have successfully paid off their debt for the necklace. Though de Maupassant does not inform the reader directly as to whether Mme Loisel has learnt her lesson. There is a sense that she has. When she is repaying the debt for the necklace she is no longer preoccupied with herself and her aspirations for material things. Her main priority is to pay off the thirty six thousand francs. Also Mme Loisel is described as being 'glad' that the whole affair of paying of the necklace is over. Which further suggests that Mme Loisel may be conscious enough to realise that she is now happy with what she has got (husband and debt free). Rather than chasing material things Mme Loisel appears to be focusing on the things that she has. The simple things that she : previously looked upon with disregard. No longer is she as discontent even though she has spent ten years paying back the money for the necklace. It is as though a weight has been lifted from Mme Loisel's shoulders. The desire for material things is no longer. Mme Loisel has been humbled by her experiences over the last ten years. She may be poor but she is happier than she previously was when she was driven by her desire to own possessions that would have been of no use to

her. The end of the story is also interesting as there is a hint of irony in the fact that Mme Forestier tells Mme Loisel that the necklace was only worth about five hundred francs. It is possible that de Maupassant is highlighting the importance of appearance to Mme Loisel. She originally chose the necklace because she believed that it was made of diamonds. So over powering were Mme Loisel's desires for material things she never imagined that what she might have been wearing was fake. In essence de Maupassant may be suggesting that not everything an individual sees may be what it seems and that happiness comes

from within. Not from material possessions. Chapter Three Elements of Poetry

• Poetry: A type of literature that uses sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words to describe the word in striking and imaginative ways. ~ Structure: The way the words and lines are arranged. = Speaker: The person or character who communicates the words of the poem. Poetic Language is specific, imaginative, and rich with emotion. Every form of poetry has its own structure. -Lines: Poetry is divided into lines or groups of words. Stanza: A series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line from other stanzas. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:

• couplet (2 lines) : a stanza that consists of two lines. + tercet (3 lines); a stanza that consists of three lines. + quatrain (4 lines): a stanza that consists of four lines. + cinquain (5 lines): a stanza that consists of five lines. + sestet(6lines): a stanza that consists of six lines. + septet(7 lines): a stanza that consists of seven lines. + octave (8 lines): a stanza that consists of eight lines. = Form: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three most common types of

poems according to form: . Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems. 2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement]. 3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is more personal and introspective.The third person omniscient view reveals the thoughts of any character the author chooses, such as, "Bob was afraid of the dragon as well as Sue, but she had the presence

of mind not to show her fear." Good short story writing will include engaging dialogue, sensory

descriptions, vivid action, as well as a tightly woven narrative. Characters in fiction can be classified as major and minor, static and dynamic. A major character is an important figure at the center of the story's action or theme. The major character is sometimes called a protagonist whose conflict with an antagonist may spark the story's conflict. Supporting the major character are one or more secondary or minor characters whose function is partly to illuminate the major characters. Minor characters are often static or unchanging: they remain the same from the beginning of a work to the end. Dynamic characters, on the other hand, exhibit some kind of change -- of

attitude, purpose, behavior, as the story progresses. 2- Irony: is not so much an element of fiction as a pervasive quality in it. It may appear in fiction in three ways: in a work's language, in its incidents, or in its point of view. But in whatever form it emerges, irony always involves a contrast or discrepancy between one thing and another. The contrast may be between what is said and what is meant {verbal irony), what is expected to happen and what actually happens (situational irony) or between what a character believes or says and what the reader understands to be true (dramatic irony). 3- Plot, the action element in fiction, is the arrangement of events that make up a story. Many fictional plots turn on a conflict, or struggle between opposing forces, that is usually resolved by the end of the

story. Typical fictional plots begin with an exposition that provides : background information needed to make sense of the action, describes the setting, and introduces the major characters; these plots develop a series of complications or intensifications of the conflict that lead to a crisis or moment of great tension. The conflict may reach a climax or turning point, a moment of greatest tension that fixes the outcome; then, the action falls off as the plot's complications are sorted out and

resolved. 4- Point of view: refers to who tells the story and how it is told. The possible ways of telling a story are many, and more than one point of view can be worked into a single story. However, the various points of view that storytellers draw upon can be grouped into two broad

categories: Third-Person Narrator (uses pronouns he, she, or they):

1, Omniscient: The narrator is all-knowing and takes the reader inside the characters' thoughts, feelings, and motives, as well as shows what

the characters say and do.

2. Limited omniscient: The narrator takes the reader inside one (or at most very few characters) but neither the reader nor the character(s)

has access to the inner lives of any of the other characters in the story. 3. Objective: The narrator does not see into the mind of any character; rather he or she reports the action and dialogue without telling the

reader directly what the characters feel and think. First-Person Narrator (uses pronoun |): The narrator presents the point

of view of only one character's consciousness, which limits the : narrative to what the first-person narrator knows, experiences, infers,

or can find out by talking to other characters. 5- Setting is the physical and social context in which the action of a story occurs. The major elements of setting are the time, the place, and the social environment that frames the characters. These elements establish the world in which the characters act. Sometimes the setting is lightly sketched, presented only because the story has to take place somewhere and at some time. Often, however, the setting is more important, giving the reader the feel of the people who move through it. Setting can be used to evoke a mood or atmosphere that will

prepare the reader for what is to come. 6- Style:

is the way a writer chooses words (diction), arranges them in sentences and longer units of discourse (syntax) and exploits their significance. Style is the verbal identity of a writer, as unmistakable as his or her face or voice. Reflecting their individuality, writers' styles

convey their unique ways of seeing the world. 7-_Symbol: is a person, object, image, word, ore vent that evokes a range of additional meanings beyond and usually more abstract than its literal significance. Symbols are devices for evoking complex ideas

without having to resort to painstaking explanations. 8- Theme: is the central idea or meaning of a story. Theme in fiction is rarely presented at all; it is abstracted from the details of character and

action that compose the story. It provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols, and other

elements of a story are organized. 9- Tone : is the author's implicit attitude toward the reader, subject, and/or the people, places, and events in a work as revealed by the elements of the author's style. Tone may be characterized as serious or

ironic, sad or happy, private of public, angry or affectionate. : Summary and Analysis

Summary:

A young woman, Mathilde, is born to a low class family. With no money for a dowry, she is married to Monsieur Loisel, a clerk from the Board of Education. Mathilde always felt like she should have been born to the upper class and is unhappy in her married life, hating their home, their food, and her lack of fine clothing and jewelry. One evening, her husband presents her excitedly with an invitation to attend an event at the Minister of Public Instruction's home. To the surprise of M. Loisel, Mathilde--- now Mme. Loisel-throws the invitation down in dismay, weeping and complaining that she has nothing to wear to such an event. Her husband offers to give her the money for something suitable, and she calculates the maximum

amount she could request without him refusing her immediately. When she requests this amount, her husband pales, thinking of the hunting gun for which he has been saving that exact amount; nonetheless, he agrees. The day of the ball approaches and Mme. Loisel's dress is made ready, but she is still dismayed. When asked why, she replies that she is embarrassed to attend the ball without any jewels. Her husband, after being chastised for suggesting she wear flowers in her hair instead, suggests that she ask to borrow some jewels from her rich friend, Mme. Forestier. Mme Loisel agrees and goes to see her friend the next day, greedily choosing one of Mme. Forestier's finest necklaces. : At the ball, Madame Loisel is a hit - elegant, joyful, and desired for waltzes. She and M. Loisel return home at nearly 4 o'clock in the morning. Once they are home, Mme. Loisel realizes that she lost the necklace. She and her husband discuss the situation frantically; Mme. Loisel that she felt it on her after leaving the ball, so it must be in the road somewhere. Her husband goes back out to look on the ground the entire way they just walked, though he must be at work in only a few

hours. He returns empty-handed hours later. The couple places a notice with the police department and, at the suggestion of her husband, Madame Loisel writes a note to her friend saying the clasp of the necklace has broken and they are having it repaired. After a week with no news, M. Loisel proclaims that they must replace it, and the couple finds a replacement for 36,000 francs. M. Loisel had 18,000 francs from his father's will and borrows the remaining sum, making "ruinous promises" in the process.Of the men on the ship Paddy could be considered the "extreme-monkey" because he has been doing labor

jobs longer than most of the firemen--labor jobs fit for monkeys. Paddy brings historical perspective to The Hairy Ape. His extensive monologue in Scene One details how shipping used to be aboard Clipper Ships. Without Paddy's presence the audience would not have as much perspective about the revolution brought about by machines. Paddy has experienced life on the sea that was free, where he was empowered and valued. Paddy, unlike many of the men, knows what it

is like to not do slave labor. The acceptance and attachment to the modern-ship machine enslaves men like Yank. The need for belonging, without the knowledge of what else to belong to, is dangerous as

exemplified by Yank's encounter with Mildred. Paddy's characterization of Mildred in Scene Four demor----- **-+ he has real knowledge of the Bourgeois lifestyle. Paddy's 56/167 Mildred's look and fainting spell in the stokehole defines Yank's own opinion of Mildred. Paddy's experiences let him have real opinions. While the development of one's opinion is definitely a process of age,

it is also a benefit of freedom. Themes

1- The search For Identity in Eugene O'Neill's The Hairy Ape

Eugene O'Neill's real concern was the oppressed industrial working class and the effect of capitalists on worker. They enslaved the workers and deprived them from their self-esteem and free will. He criticized the capitalist system, and attacked the movement that should stand by the workers, fulfill their needs and solve their problem. However, Oscar G. Brockett stated that " industrialism and science have kept man's eyes on the ground and have reduced him to

machine like creature".Example: "To be, or not to be", a soliloquy from Hamlet. Music in Drama:

It provides the cadence to the dialogues and adds an element of the theatrical presentation. Though not indispensable in a drama, music provides sounds to the action in the drama. It creates patterns and rhythm of those patterns. It is used to enhance the experience of the audience and provide heightened sensorial stimulation for the audience. It also adds more power to the ideas presented in the play like a tragedy, heroism, optimism, loss, etc. Even the thoughts and desires of the characters are depicted through various musical elements and compositions. The right kind of sound effects or music

greatly supplements the ebb and flow of emotions in the play. Plot Overview

The firemen, workers who shovel coal into the engine of a Transatlantic Ocean Liner, sit in the forecastle of the ship drinking and carrying on with each other. They are an hour out of New York City and have seven more days aboard ship. The men are burly and muscular. Yank, the fiercest looking of the men, sits in the foreground quietly. Whenever Yank speaks the men immediately hush. Yank asks for a beer and the men immediately give one to him. As Yank and the men drink, Yank remains in control as the leader of the group. Yank and the men joke about thinking as they drink. Yank, in a joke repeated during the play, tells the men to be quiet because he is trying to "tink."Yank tries to attract attention to himself by bumping into people and accosting a young woman, but receives no response but "I beg your pardon." Finally, Yank is arrested because he makes a Gentleman miss his bus. Yank is imprisoned on Blackwell's Island and converses with the other prisoners in Scene Six. The men tell him that if he wants to get even with Mildred and her father's company he should join the Wobblies or the Industrial Workers of the World. Yank realizes that Mildred's father built both the physical and metaphorical cage he is trapped in. In a fury, Yank actually bends the bars of his cell, but is restrained by the guards. Yank visits the local 1.W.W. in Scene Seven, but is rejected because the Secretary thinks he is a governmental spy. Yank is thrown out on the street. Yank spends the night at the Battery and the next morning visits the Monkey House at the Zoo. In Scene Eight, Yank attempts to befriend the ape. He tells the ape that they are alike--both caged and taunted. Yank believes he and the ape belong to the same club and calls him brother. Yank releases the gorilla from his cage and approaches the ape to shake his hand. The gorilla springs on Yank, crushes Yank with his massive arms and then tosses Yank into his cage. Yank dies in the gorilla's cage. Characters Yank:

The struggle of Yank, a fireman who works aboard a Transatlantic Liner, is the subject of The Hairy Ape. Yank, real name is Bob Smith, was born in New York City. Yank does not reveal many details of his family history, but, from what he does say, it is clear that it was painful. His mother died of the "tremens" and his father, a shore- worker, was abusive.They rent rooms and Madame Loisel learns to cook, clean for many, be "clothed like a woman of the people" and haggle at the market. Her husband works evenings and takes on side jobs bookkeeping and copying. After ten years, they are finally able to pay off all of their debts. Sitting at home, a hardened, old woman, Madame Loisel thinks back on how her life might have been, had she not lost the necklace. One day, while taking a walk, Mme. Loisel runs into

Mme. Forestier. She approaches her old friend, and Mme. Forestier almost doesn't recognize her. In a sudden burst of emotion, Madame Loisel reveals her entire story of losing the necklace, replacing it, and working off the cost of the replacement ever since. In response, Madame Forestier replies that the original necklace did not contain actual diamonds but rather fake diamonds, meaning the original necklace cost no more than 500 francs. Analysis As writer in 19th- century France, Maupassant writes in a style called Literary Realism. The clearest example of this style comes in the final third of the story, when he describes the poor, working lives of the Loisels. Maupassant contrasts this with the almost romantic description of the party that

the Loisels attend, at which Mathilde wore the titular necklace. As gender played an important role in 19th-century French society, so too does it in "The Necklace."The men mockingly repeat after him, "think" and then erupt into a chorus of "Drink, don't think!" Cutting through the general mayhem, a drunken tenor sings a tune about his lass at home. Talk of home outside the ocean liner infuriates Yank and he tells the tenor to be quiet. Long, quite drunk, stands up and makes a Marxist speech, preaching to the men that if the ship is home, their home is hell and the Upper Class put them there. Yank tells him to join the Salvation Army and get a soapbox. Paddy, a wise, older fireman tells the men that life on an Ocean Liner is hell by comparison to his life on a Clipper Ship. Paddy reminisces about the freedom he enjoyed, the purpose he had and skill for which he was valued. Mildred and her Aunt lounge on the promenade deck of the

Ocean Liner. Mildred and her Aunt discuss Mildred's need to do service for the poor. Mildred worked with the poor in Manhattan's Lower East Side and is currently on her way to do more service projects in Europe. Mildred's Aunt characterizes Mildred's service as "slumming" and does not understand why she has to do it internationally.When he thinks he "belongs" to something he gains strength, when Yank is rejected by a group, he is terribly weak. However, Yank is rejected by all facets of society: his fellow firemen, Mildred, the street goers of 5th Ave., The |.W.W., and finally the ape in the zoo. Yank symbolizes the struggle of modern man within industrial

society--he cannot break class or ideological barriers, nor create new ones. Yank is the outsider, and eventually just the freak at the zoo for

people to cage and point at.

Mildred Douglas:

Mildred Douglas, the picture of piety and service, is anything but. Mildred is the pale and feeble daughter of the owner of Nazareth Steel. She has been lavishly spoiled and enjoyed every possible privilege money can buy. In college, Mildred studied sociology and is on a crusade to help the poor. Mildred has previously worked with the disadvantaged people in New York's Lower East Side. Mildred's Aunt is accompanying her to Europe where she will embark on more service projects. While on the Ocean Liner Mildred asks permission to visit the lower portions ship to view how the "other half" (Yank and the firemen) live.But the prime value is not the need to revolt but to 'belong'." Yank dies without knowing his real identity. He is not a part of steel and machinery, but actually, he is

their salve. 2- Human Regression by Industrialization:

The resounding theme of The Hairy Apeis the effect of industrialization and technological progress on the worker. Industrialization has reduced the human worker into a machine. The men are programmed to do one task, are turned on and off by whistles, and are not required to think independently. Today, the job of the coal stoker is actually done by a machine. Workers are thus forced into jobs that require nothing but grunt work and physical labor, which has, in turn, caused a general deterioration of the worker into a Neanderthal or Ape- like state. This is made clear by O'Neill's stage direction, which indicates that the Firemen actually look like Neanderthals and one of the oldest workers, Paddy, as "extremely monkey-like."To help his audience probl into Yank's mind, O'Neill tends to employ monologue as ani expressionistic technique.Throughout this struggle Yank defines "belonging" as power.

Chapter One

Drama: Introduction

Drama is the act of portraying a story in front of an audience. It
involves the characters and events of the story being brought to life on
a stage by actors and their interactions (verbal and non-verbal)

through its events.

Of various forms of drama, plays are the most popular. Some
other formats are dance performances, radio shows, puppet shows,
etc. The history of drama goes back to Aristotle and his treatise
‘Poetics’ which gives a critical analysis of Sophocles’ Greek
play, ‘Oedipus Rex’. Plays aim to show through action and dialogues
what the written text of the story delineates. It has a written blueprint
called the script which has all the information regarding the characters,
their dialogues, and the stage setting like mise-en-scene, etc.

*The various characteristics of drama are:

Themes in Drama:

It represents the basic idea of the text. It can be as direct as the
title of the drama to very obscure and needs careful thought and

analysis. The action and its plot makes the audiences immerse in the

drama and try to extract the theme behind it.
: Plot in Drama:

The sequence of events or actions in a play is called its plot. It
represents what happens in the drama. The clarity and coherence of

the plot are essential to give the drama a logical and undisturbed flow.

The various characters follow a pattern of interactions and
movements through various stages of the plot. These stages are initial
disturbance or conflict, rising action, climax, falling action and finally

the resolution of the conflict.

Characterization in Drama:

The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is
known as characterization. The characters act out the story in front of
the audience. They are the agents of movement and progression in a

drama.

They are responsible for perusing and traversing the plotlines. A
character has its distinctive appearance, beliefs, thoughts, flaws,
personality, age, and dialogues. Actors in the play have the

responsibility of bringing the characters to life.

The various characters in any drama are the protagonist (represents
the theme), the antagonist (the villain of the drama), anti-hero (the
object of sympathy), etc. Characters may include the narrator who
introduces other characters and informs about the various interactions

and happenings in the drama. as
: ins ni i H ae

The setting represents when and where the drama unfolds. It can
have multiple places or confined to a single space. The historical and
social context, time period and the location of the story is set are all
included in the design of the setting of any drama.

Example: Merchant of Venice is set in the 16th century Venice.
Spectacle involves the complete range of aspects of dramatic
production from the setting, make-up, costumes to special effects.

The visual elements add more information for the audience to register
and help create a unique world or atmosphere and bring to life the
playwright’s ideas. The direction is an essential constituent of effective
stagecraft.

Stage directions are provided to the actors to follow and ensure unity
of movement on stage. The organization of props and lighting is also

crucial in any performance.

Descriptions provide a wealth of information about various things from
the setting and its elements, characters, and their thoughts, plot and
its web of action, etc. The coherence of details is important to keep the

audience engaged and richness is important to keep them entertained

inguage in Drama:

The word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of
the actors of the language. The dialogues are the lines that the

characters speak and often represent their feelings and emotions.
Language and dialogues delivered by the characters move the plot
and action along, provides exposition, and defines the distinct
characters. Each playwright can create their own specific style in
relationship to language choices they use in establishing character and
dialogue. Monologues and soliloquies help are speeches that
incorporate information difficult to be extracted through dialogues.
Example: “To be, or not to be“, a soliloquy from Hamlet.

Music in Drama:

It provides the cadence to the dialogues and adds an element of
the theatrical presentation. Though not indispensable in a drama,
music provides sounds to the action in the drama. It creates patterns
and rhythm of those patterns. It is used to enhance the experience of
the audience and provide heightened sensorial stimulation for the
audience. It also adds more power to the ideas presented in the play
like a tragedy, heroism, optimism, loss, etc. Even the thoughts and
desires of the characters are depicted through various musical
elements and compositions. The right kind of sound effects or music

greatly supplements the ebb and flow of emotions in the play.
Plot Overview

The firemen, workers who shovel coal into the engine of a
Transatlantic Ocean Liner, sit in the forecastle of the ship drinking and
carrying on with each other. They are an hour out of New York City and
have seven more days aboard ship. The men are burly and muscular.
Yank, the fiercest looking of the men, sits in the foreground quietly.
Whenever Yank speaks the men immediately hush. Yank asks for a
beer and the men immediately give one to him. As Yank and the men
drink, Yank remains in control as the leader of the group. Yank and the
men joke about thinking as they drink. Yank, in a joke repeated during
the play, tells the men to be quiet because he is trying to "tink." The
men mockingly repeat after him, "think" and then erupt into a chorus
of "Drink, don't think!" Cutting through the general mayhem, a
drunken tenor sings a tune about his lass at home. Talk of home
outside the ocean liner infuriates Yank and he tells the tenor to be
quiet. Long, quite drunk, stands up and makes a Marxist speech,
preaching to the men that if the ship is home, their home is hell and
the Upper Class put them there. Yank tells him to join the Salvation
Army and get a soapbox. Paddy, a wise, older fireman tells the men
that life on an Ocean Liner is hell by comparison to his life on a Clipper
Ship. Paddy reminisces about the freedom he enjoyed, the purpose he
had and skill for which he was valued. Yank tells Paddy that he is dead,
“living in the past of dreams" and glorifies his own job as the strength

of the ship's speed and force.

Mildred and her Aunt lounge on the promenade deck of the

Ocean Liner. Mildred and her Aunt discuss Mildred's need to do service
for the poor. Mildred worked with the poor in Manhattan's Lower East
Side and is currently on her way to do more service projects in Europe.
Mildred's Aunt characterizes Mildred's service as "slumming" and does
not understand why she has to do it internationally. Mildred's Aunt
tells Mildred that her service work just makes the poor feel poorer.
Mildred is currently waiting for the second engineer to take her down
into the stokehole. Mildred told a lie that her father, the president of
Nazareth Steel, has given her permission. When he arrives, the second
Engineer escorts Mildred, clad in a white dress she refused to change

out of, down into the stokehole.

Yank and the men are hard at work shoveling coal in the noisy
stokehole at the opening of Scene Three. Yank leads the men at work.
The men take a break and an anonymous whistle-blower overhead in
the darkness commands the men to keep working. In a rage, Yank
screams up at the whistle-blower. Yank suddenly realizes that the men
have stopped working. Still fuming, Yank turns to face Mildred. At the
sight of Yank, Mildred whimpers for the men to take her away from

the filthy beast and faints into the arms of the engineers.

The men have again gathered in the stokehold in Scene Four.
They replay and rehash the Mildred scene and mock Yank, the "filthy
beast." Paddy tells Yank Mildred looked at him like he was a big "hairy
ape." Infuriated, Yank lunges toward the door to find Mildred, but is

restrained by the other Firemen.

Yank and Long have traveled to 5th Avenue in New York City in

Scene Five. Long means to show Yank that all upper class people are
: like Mildred. Yank tries to attract attention to himself by bumping into
people and accosting a young woman, but receives no response but "I
beg your pardon." Finally, Yank is arrested because he makes a
Gentleman miss his bus. Yank is imprisoned on Blackwell's Island and
converses with the other prisoners in Scene Six. The men tell him that
if he wants to get even with Mildred and her father's company he
should join the Wobblies or the Industrial Workers of the World. Yank
realizes that Mildred's father built both the physical and metaphorical
cage he is trapped in. In a fury, Yank actually bends the bars of his cell,
but is restrained by the guards.

Yank visits the local 1.W.W. in Scene Seven, but is rejected
because the Secretary thinks he is a governmental spy. Yank's
radicalism, willingness to blow things up and preoccupation with
“belonging” make them suspicious of him. Yank is thrown out on the
street. Yank spends the night at the Battery and the next morning visits
the Monkey House at the Zoo. In Scene Eight, Yank attempts to
befriend the ape. He tells the ape that they are alike—both caged and
taunted. Yank believes he and the ape belong to the same club and
calls him brother. Yank releases the gorilla from his cage and
approaches the ape to shake his hand. The gorilla springs on Yank,
crushes Yank with his massive arms and then tosses Yank into his cage.

Yank dies in the gorilla's cage.
Characters
Yank:

The struggle of Yank, a fireman who works aboard a Transatlantic
Liner, is the subject of The Hairy Ape. Yank, real name is Bob Smith,
was born in New York City. Yank does not reveal many details of his
family history, but, from what he does say, it is clear that it was
painful. His mother died of the “tremens” and his father, a shore-
worker, was abusive. Yank tells Long that on Saturday nights his
parent's fighting was so intense that his parents would break the
furniture. Ironically, his parents made him attend church every Sunday
morning. After his mother died, Yank ran away from home, tired of

lickings and punishment.

In the beginning of The Hairy Ape, Yank seems fairly content as,
if not proud to be a fireman. He defends the ship as his home and
insists that the work he does is vital—it is the force that makes the ship
go twenty-five knots an hour. Mildred Douglas's reaction to Yank is the
catalyst which makes Yank come to class awareness. His attempt to get
revenge on Mildred Douglas widens to revenge on the steel industry
and finally the entire Bourgeois. Throughout this struggle Yank defines
"belonging" as power. When he thinks he "belongs" to something he
gains strength, when Yank is rejected by a group, he is terribly weak.
However, Yank is rejected by all facets of society: his fellow firemen,
Mildred, the street goers of 5th Ave., The |.W.W., and finally the ape in
the zoo. Yank symbolizes the struggle of modern man within industrial

society—he cannot break class or ideological barriers, nor create new
ones. Yank is the outsider, and eventually just the freak at the zoo for

people to cage and point at.

Mildred Douglas:

Mildred Douglas, the picture of piety and service, is anything but.
Mildred is the pale and feeble daughter of the owner of Nazareth
Steel. She has been lavishly spoiled and enjoyed every possible
privilege money can buy. In college, Mildred studied sociology and is
on a crusade to help the poor. Mildred has previously worked with the
disadvantaged people in New York's Lower East Side. Mildred's Aunt is
accompanying her to Europe where she will embark on more service
projects. While on the Ocean Liner Mildred asks permission to visit the
lower portions ship to view how the “other half" (Yank and the
firemen) live. As if on a trip to the zoo, she wears a bright white dress
down into the stokehole, ignoring the Engineer's warning that is will

get dirty from the coal dust.

Although Mildred should be considered the antagonist of The
Hairy Ape, she is equally victimized by class as Yank. Though Mildred
has more education and cultural experience than Yank, she still cannot
escape her cultural identity. Mildred describes herself as the waste of
her father's steel company, as she has felt the benefits, but not the
hard work that brought them. She shares with Yank the need to find a
sense of usefulness or belonging—the fate of both characters were
decided before they were born. Thus, Yank and Mildred desperately
search to find an identity that is their own.
The failure of both these characters lies in their conscious and
unconscious refusal to shed their values and knowledge while
searching for a new identity. For example, Mildred will not change out

of her white dress and Yank's coal dust is saturated into his skin.

Paddy:

Although Paddy only appears in The Hairy Ape in two scenes, he
is an essential element of the play. Paddy is an old Irishman who likes
to drink heavily, and he is known for his rendition of "Whiskey Johnny"
and spouting philosophy and stories of the past when intoxicated.
Although Paddy is quite a thinker, O'Neill describes Paddy's facial
features as "extremely monkey—with the sad, patient pathos of that
animal in his small eyes." Of the men on the ship Paddy could be
considered the “extreme-monkey" because he has been doing labor

jobs longer than most of the firemen—labor jobs fit for monkeys.

Paddy brings historical perspective to The Hairy Ape. His extensive
monologue in Scene One details how shipping used to be aboard
Clipper Ships. Without Paddy's presence the audience would not have
as much perspective about the revolution brought about by machines.
Paddy has experienced life on the sea that was free, where he was
empowered and valued. Paddy, unlike many of the men, knows what it

is like to not do slave labor.

Yank's continual references to Paddy as "dead" and “old” and not
"belonging" with the other men aboard the Ocean Liner reveals Yank's

own rejection of freedom. The acceptance and attachment to the
modern-ship machine enslaves men like Yank. The need for belonging,
without the knowledge of what else to belong to, is dangerous as

exemplified by Yank's encounter with Mildred.

Paddy's characterization of Mildred in Scene Four demor----- **-+
he has real knowledge of the Bourgeois lifestyle. Paddy's 56/167
Mildred's look and fainting spell in the stokehole defines Yank's own
opinion of Mildred. Paddy's experiences let him have real opinions.
While the development of one's opinion is definitely a process of age,

it is also a benefit of freedom.

Themes

1- The search For Identity in Eugene O'Neill's The Hairy Ape

Eugene O'Neill's real concern was the oppressed industrial
working class and the effect of capitalists on worker. They enslaved the
workers and deprived them from their self-esteem and free will. He
criticized the capitalist system, and attacked the movement that
should stand by the workers, fulfill their needs and solve their
problem. However, Oscar G. Brockett stated that " industrialism and
science have kept man's eyes on the ground and have reduced him to

machine like creature".

Industrialism dehumanized man, alienated him from society and
oppressed his present, past and future. Man was highly effected by the
social environment and the materialistic values that started to prevail
leaving him an easy prey to the danger of his emptiness and insecurity
resulting from loss of faith in himself and in religion. O'Neill perceived
this tragedy in The Hairy Ape which was expressionistic. "both in
technique and in its disgust at modern humanity. The lower classes in

it are hairy apes, the upper classes more marionettes."

Yank, the main character in The Hairy Ape, is a symbolic
representation of man who is alienated from the modern world He
believes that he "belongs" to the industrial world through his physical
strength, yet he is, gradually, transformed into an ape-like creature. He
and the fireman in the forecastle of the ship are described by O'Neill as

" beasts cage";
The room is crowded with men, shouting, cursing, laughing,
singing- a confused inchoate uproar swelling into a sort of unity,
a meaning — the bewildered, furious, baffled defiance of a beast

in a cage.

This stokehole is a symbol of a prison that keeps men
disconnected from the outer world. These men only need their physical
strength to keep the ship moving, thus; they become machines without
the ability of intellectual thinking. Yank at the beginning, rejects the
idea that the capitalist class is the reason behind their predicament
and alienation. He believes that he "belongs" and that he is the force
that keeps the ship moving; " It's me makes it move ... I'm de end! I'm
destart ... I'm steam and oil for de engines. " Yank is unconscious of the
bestial and inhumane treatment to which the stoker are subjected. Yet
the appearance of Mildred, the daughter of the owner of " Nazareth "
steel, in the stokehole changes Yank. He realizes that his sense of
belonging and brotherhood is just an illusion, a self-deception and his
search for identity starts to obsess him.

Mildred is also a victim since she is imprisoned in her cultural
identity. She considers herself the waste of her father's steel company,
“I'm a waste product in the Bessemer process-like the millions.” She
wants to be useful to others, as she addresses her aunt; "I would like
to be some use in the world. Is it my fault | don't know how? | would

like to be sincere, to touch life somewhere."

Mildred intends to discover the life of the sailors in the
stokehole, on the other half of ship. The visual and audible aspect used
by O'Neill when presenting the fireman are described as chained

gorillas:

A line of men, stripped to the waist, is before the furnace door.
They bend over, looking neither to right nor left...,handling their
shovels as if they were part of their bodies, with a strange
awkward, swinging rhythm ..outlined in silhouette in the

crouching inhuman attitudes of chained gorillas.

These men lost their identity in a physical work that make theme
inferior to human beings and start taking the shape of apes in body
and gestures. Mildred is horrified to witness such a scene when Yank
embodies the perfect picture of an ape in a rage;" he [Yank ]
brandishes his shovel murderously over his head in one hand,
pounding on his chest, gorilla-like." Yank's ‘brutality’ and horrible
state lead Mildred to collapse and utter " Oh, the filthy beast!". At this
moment, an unbridgeable gap takes place between the upper and
lower classes. Consequently, Yank starts to lose harmony with his
surroundings;" Yank and Mildred confront each other only for a
moment, but that one moment is enough to play havoc with the soul

of Yank."

The old Irish man in the ship, Paddy, has a philosophy concerning
the sailors in the past. Those sailors were free, empowered and valued
more than the sailors today. Paddy is conscious of class discrimination
and he tries to explain to Yank that Mildred's behavior is not personal
and all the rich are alike in their attitudes toward the poor. Yet, Yank

insists on taking the matter personally and vows to have revenge upon
Mildred. To regain his destroyed myth of belonging, Yank decides to gol

out on ' a mission of revenge' to the Fifth Avenue.

To intensify class discrimination in the play, O'Neill describes the
social environment of the Fifth Avenue as quite an unfit place for Yank:l
"٨ general atmosphere of clean, well-tidied, wide street; a flood ofl
mellow, tempered sunshine; gentle genteel breezes." This setting isl
contrasted with Yank who is described by O'Neill as holding the samel

appearance of the stokehole;

Yank is in his dirty dungarees. A fireman's cap with black peak isl
cocked defiantly on the side of his head. He has not shaved forl
days and around his .. eyes - the black smudge of coal dust stilll

sticks like make-up.

Such a contrast establishes a further conflict within Yank as he walks
unseen by people in the Fifth Avenue street. To help his audience probl
into Yank's mind, O'Neill tends to employ monologue as ani
expressionistic technique. Yank is now pulled apart from his naturall

surroundings and his inner conflict starts to increase.

Yank is imprisoned because he offends one of the rich people inl
the Fifth Avenue. The prison is given a description similar to that of the
stokehole in the ship which is just like an animal cage, dimly lit and it isl
surrounded by heavy steel bars: "one electric bulb from low ceiling ofl
the narrow corridor sheds its light through the heavy steel bars of the
cell at the extreme front." Yank feels happy while reading about Thel
World American Labour Union in an "anarchist" paper in the prison.

Still, he discovers that this union will present to him a false deceptivel
: security since it seeks to have the right in a legal and peaceful way. As
for Yank, he desires to have revenge by using dynamite to blow the
steel factory of Mildred's father. He soon realizes the bitter fact that he
is alone and steel does not give him power, rather, it is a cage wherein
he is locked. His free-will is just an illusion and he is unable to
determine his own destiny . He wonder; "where do | go from here?"
O'Neill asserts Yank's alienation. Since he is a hairy ape, so naturally he
belongs to the monkey house in the zoo. He hopes to find " a creature

with whom he is in harmony, that there, at least, he will 'belong'."

Through Yank's monologue, we understand that he remains
encaged within the person of his soul. He feels worse than the ape in
the cage. He does not belong to his surrounding, he has no memories
to comfort him and the future is not promising. He addresses the

gorilla in the cage as he says:

It's dis way, what I'm drivin’ at. Youse can sit and dope dream in
de past, green woods de jungle and de rest of it. Den yue belong
and dey don't .... But me ... | ain't got no past to tink in, nor

nothing dat's coming, ony what's now ... and dat don't belong.

Thus, in his attempt to befriend the animal group, Yank frees the

gorilla from its cage. Yet dies as the gorilla " wraps his huge arms
around Yank in a murderous hug," Leaving his body, afterwards slips
on the floor. This last scene is a terrifying and universal picture of
man's agonized soul since, as Dr. Tilak puts it; "Yank's sense of

alienation and his quest for identity results in spiritual disintegration
: and death. His suffering is symbolic of the suffering of many an

alienated soul in the contemporary world."

In conclusion, the need to “belong” in Yank's world has lost its
significance and vitality. It is an age of steel and materialism, not an
age of free man who can be in harmony with his natural surroundings.
Industrialism deprives the working class their spiritual values and
humanity . Thus, the play is " a satire on the vacuous world of the rich,
and the soulless existence of the poor. But the prime value is not the
need to revolt but to 'belong’." Yank dies without knowing his real
identity. He is not a part of steel and machinery, but actually, he is

their salve.

2- Human Regression by Industrialization:

The resounding theme of The Hairy Apeis the effect of
industrialization and technological progress on the worker.
Industrialization has reduced the human worker into a machine. The
men are programmed to do one task, are turned on and off by
whistles, and are not required to think independently. Today, the job
of the coal stoker is actually done by a machine. Workers are thus
forced into jobs that require nothing but grunt work and physical labor,
which has, in turn, caused a general deterioration of the worker into a
Neanderthal or Ape- like state. This is made clear by O'Neill's stage
direction, which indicates that the Firemen actually look like
Neanderthals and one of the oldest workers, Paddy, as “extremely
monkey-like." The longer the Firemen work, the further back they fall

on the human evolutionary path—thus Paddy, one of the oldest, is
: Setting

The settings and environments of The Hairy Ape reveal larger
social and cultural realities. Yank and the Firemen exist within the
cramped and hot forecastle and stokehole, described as a formidable
cage. In contrast, Mildred and her Aunt's environment, the Promenade
Deck of the ship, is filled with fresh air and sun. The ocean that
surrounds them is infinitely spacious and the general feeling of
freedom abounds. The promenade deck is also symbolically situated
above at the top of the ship, far above the stokehole. Both the
stokehole and the promenade deck setting epitomize the lifestyles and
characteristics of the ship's literal decks and subsequent upper and

lower classes aboard.
: Chapter Two
Introduction to the Short Story

All short stories have some common elements. Short stories used
to be written as forms of mass entertainment and were reproduced in
publications such as newspapers and magazines. The genre of short
story enjoys less popularity than it once had. For a brief chronology of

the history of this genre please follow this link.

Elements of Short Story

Short stories usually contain these fundamental components:

plot, setting, characters, theme, point of view as well as good writing.

A plot of a short story contains sub-components such as crisis,

conflict, and resolution. A crisis "sets up" the story and enables all

conflict to occur. Conflict portrays either a struggle between opposing

forces or a problem to be solved.

Conflicts may occur between people, nature, machines. The
resolution or denouement is how the conflict is solved. The setting is
comprised of the time and the location of the short story. The
characters are the "actors" in the story. An author may choose to
reveal the characters in chiefly two ways. Direct_characterization
involves the author explicitly telling the reader about the character,
such as, "Helen is intelligent." Indirect characterization involves the
author revealing the character though the character's actions and
words, such as, “Helen refused to let the problem get the best of her,
so she investigated ways to circumvent the obstacle." Most authors

use a combination of both direct and indirect characterization.
: The theme of a story is the central principle around which the
story and character revolves. Longer short stories and novel will have
multiple themes. However, most short stories develop one or perhaps
two themes. Some have suggested that the theme may be described as
the ‘lesson to be learned;" however, it is best to describe it as the

“main idea" or the guiding principle of the story.

The point-of-view describes the reference point of the story. How
does the author choose to reveal the story? Through the eyes of the
main character or through a bystander? There are usually three points
of view - any short story will employ only one. A first person point of
view reveals the thoughts of the main character and involves the use of
first person pronouns by the main character, such as, "| was afraid
when | faced the dragon, but | wasn't sure of how Sue felt." The third
person limited view reveals the thought of the main character but from
an outsider's perspective, such as, "Bob was afraid when he faced the
dragon, while Sue remained inscrutable." The third person omniscient
view reveals the thoughts of any character the author chooses, such as,
"Bob was afraid of the dragon as well as Sue, but she had the presence

of mind not to show her fear."

Good short story writing will include engaging dialogue, sensory

descriptions, vivid action, as well as a tightly woven narrative.
“There are many technical devices in the "short story":

1- Characterization is a means by which writers present and reveal
characters — by direct description, by showing the character in action,
or by the presentation of other characters who help to define each
other. Characters in fiction can be classified as major and minor, static
and dynamic. A major character is an important figure at the center of
the story’s action or theme. The major character is sometimes called a
protagonist whose conflict with an antagonist may spark the story’s
conflict. Supporting the major character are one or more secondary or
minor characters whose function is partly to illuminate the major
characters. Minor characters are often static or unchanging: they
remain the same from the beginning of a work to the end. Dynamic
characters, on the other hand, exhibit some kind of change — of

attitude, purpose, behavior, as the story progresses.

2- Irony: is not so much an element of fiction as a pervasive quality in
it. It may appear in fiction in three ways: in a work’s language, in its
incidents, or in its point of view. But in whatever form it emerges,
irony always involves a contrast or discrepancy between one thing and
another. The contrast may be between what is said and what is meant
{verbal irony), what is expected to happen and what actually happens
(situational irony) or between what a character believes or says and
what the reader understands to be true (dramatic irony).

3- Plot, the action element in fiction, is the arrangement of events that
make up a story. Many fictional plots turn on a conflict, or struggle
between opposing forces, that is usually resolved by the end of the

story. Typical fictional plots begin with an exposition that provides
: background information needed to make sense of the action, describes
the setting, and introduces the major characters; these plots develop a
series of complications or intensifications of the conflict that lead to a
crisis or moment of great tension. The conflict may reach a climax or
turning point, a moment of greatest tension that fixes the outcome;
then, the action falls off as the plot’s complications are sorted out and

resolved.

4- Point of view: refers to who tells the story and how it is told. The
possible ways of telling a story are many, and more than one point of
view can be worked into a single story. However, the various points of
view that storytellers draw upon can be grouped into two broad

categories:
Third-Person Narrator (uses pronouns he, she, or they):

1, Omniscient: The narrator is all-knowing and takes the reader inside
the characters’ thoughts, feelings, and motives, as well as shows what

the characters say and do.

2. Limited omniscient: The narrator takes the reader inside one (or at
   most very few characters) but neither the reader nor the character(s)

has access to the inner lives of any of the other characters in the story.

3. Objective: The narrator does not see into the mind of any character;
   rather he or she reports the action and dialogue without telling the

reader directly what the characters feel and think.

First-Person Narrator (uses pronoun |): The narrator presents the point

of view of only one character’s consciousness, which limits the
: narrative to what the first-person narrator knows, experiences, infers,

or can find out by talking to other characters.

5- Setting is the physical and social context in which the action of a
story occurs. The major elements of setting are the time, the place, and
the social environment that frames the characters. These elements
establish the world in which the characters act. Sometimes the setting
is lightly sketched, presented only because the story has to take place
somewhere and at some time. Often, however, the setting is more
important, giving the reader the feel of the people who move through
it. Setting can be used to evoke a mood or atmosphere that will

prepare the reader for what is to come.

6- Style:

is the way a writer chooses words (diction), arranges them in
sentences and longer units of discourse (syntax) and exploits their
significance. Style is the verbal identity of a writer, as unmistakable as
his or her face or voice. Reflecting their individuality, writers’ styles

convey their unique ways of seeing the world.

7-_Symbol: is a person, object, image, word, ore vent that evokes a
range of additional meanings beyond and usually more abstract than
its literal significance. Symbols are devices for evoking complex ideas

without having to resort to painstaking explanations.

8- Theme: is the central idea or meaning of a story. Theme in fiction is
rarely presented at all; it is abstracted from the details of character and

action that compose the story. It provides a unifying point around
which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols, and other

elements of a story are organized.

9- Tone : is the author’s implicit attitude toward the reader, subject,
and/or the people, places, and events in a work as revealed by the
elements of the author's style. Tone may be characterized as serious or

ironic, sad or happy, private of public, angry or affectionate.
: Summary and Analysis

Summary:

A young woman, Mathilde, is born to a low class family. With
no money for a dowry, she is married to Monsieur Loisel, a clerk from
the Board of Education. Mathilde always felt like she should have been
born to the upper class and is unhappy in her married life, hating their
home, their food, and her lack of fine clothing and jewelry. One
evening, her husband presents her excitedly with an invitation to
attend an event at the Minister of Public Instruction’s home. To the
surprise of M. Loisel, Mathilde—- now Mme. Loisel-throws the
invitation down in dismay, weeping and complaining that she has
nothing to wear to such an event. Her husband offers to give her the
money for something suitable, and she calculates the maximum

amount she could request without him refusing her immediately.

When she requests this amount, her husband pales, thinking of
the hunting gun for which he has been saving that exact amount;
nonetheless, he agrees. The day of the ball approaches and Mme.
Loisel’s dress is made ready, but she is still dismayed. When asked
why, she replies that she is embarrassed to attend the ball without any
jewels. Her husband, after being chastised for suggesting she wear
flowers in her hair instead, suggests that she ask to borrow some
jewels from her rich friend, Mme. Forestier. Mme Loisel agrees and
goes to see her friend the next day, greedily choosing one of Mme.

Forestier’s finest necklaces.
: At the ball, Madame Loisel is a hit - elegant, joyful, and desired
for waltzes. She and M. Loisel return home at nearly 4 o’clock in the
morning. Once they are home, Mme. Loisel realizes that she lost the
necklace. She and her husband discuss the situation frantically; Mme.
Loisel that she felt it on her after leaving the ball, so it must be in the
road somewhere. Her husband goes back out to look on the ground the
entire way they just walked, though he must be at work in only a few

hours. He returns empty-handed hours later.

The couple places a notice with the police department and, at
the suggestion of her husband, Madame Loisel writes a note to her
friend saying the clasp of the necklace has broken and they are having
it repaired. After a week with no news, M. Loisel proclaims that they
must replace it, and the couple finds a replacement for 36,000 francs.
M. Loisel had 18,000 francs from his father’s will and borrows the
remaining sum, making “ruinous promises” in the process. After all
this, Madame Loisel puts the new necklace in the case belonging to

the original necklace; she returns it without arousing suspicion.

To pay off the debt, both Monsieur and Madame Loisel must
work tirelessly. They rent rooms and Madame Loisel learns to cook,
clean for many, be “clothed like a woman of the people” and haggle at
the market. Her husband works evenings and takes on side jobs
bookkeeping and copying. After ten years, they are finally able to pay
off all of their debts. Sitting at home, a hardened, old woman, Madame
Loisel thinks back on how her life might have been, had she not lost
the necklace. One day, while taking a walk, Mme. Loisel runs into

Mme. Forestier. She approaches her old friend, and Mme. Forestier
almost doesn’t recognize her. In a sudden burst of emotion, Madame
Loisel reveals her entire story of losing the necklace, replacing it, and
working off the cost of the replacement ever since. In response,
Madame Forestier replies that the original necklace did not contain
actual diamonds but rather fake diamonds, meaning the original
necklace cost no more than 500 francs. Analysis As writer in 19th-
century France, Maupassant writes in a style called Literary Realism.
The clearest example of this style comes in the final third of the story,
when he describes the poor, working lives of the Loisels. Maupassant
contrasts this with the almost romantic description of the party that

the Loisels attend, at which Mathilde wore the titular necklace.

As gender played an important role in 19th-century French
society, so too does it in "The Necklace." Women of the middle and
upper classes did not work, instead being taken care of by their
husbands. Thus, many of the Loisels’ problems involve money. Not
only is Mme. Loisel bitter about her inability to improve her social
class, but the Loisels also value different things, with those values
mapping along gender lines. When invited to the party, Mme. Loisel
begins to weep, asking her husband to lend her the money for a new
dress, as clothing and jewelry were especially important indicators of
status for women. In contrast, M. Loisel thinks to himself that he had
wanted to save that money to buy a new gun, a manly pursuit that he
could have used to bond with male friends and relax from his busy
work schedule.

Beauty is treated in "The Necklace" at times as objective and at

times as quite subjective, dependent on social class. On one hand,
: Maupassant writes that beauty was the way women could advance
their place in society. On the other hand, Mme. Loisel sees Mme.
Forestier's necklace as beautiful largely because of its supposed worth
and the social capital it provides. At the party, it is said that Mme.
Loisel felt and looked quite beautiful, and that many men desired to
dance with her. In this case, the reader must ask whether this is
because of her natural beauty, the upperclass attire she was able to
acquire for the event, or perhaps simply her confidence from her
clothing.

Until the end of the story, Mme. Loisel is not presented as a
particularly likeable or sympathetic character. One example of Mme.
Loisel's flaws comes when the couple has just gotten home from the
party: Mme. Loisel says, "I have—l have-—l no longer have Mrs.
Forestier's necklace." In this moment, it seems that she is trying, even
in her panicked state, not to take the blame of what has happened,
refusing to admit that she lost the necklace.

In setting up the eventual irony in one of his classic twist
endings, Maupassant is careful to write that the necklace "seemed to
them exactly like the one they had lost". This is not enough to alert the
reader to the eventual irony, but it points to the couple's inability to
tell the two necklaces apart precisely because they were not
accustomed to lavish jewelry. This in turn raises the question of
whether Mme. Forestier would have recognized the substitution;
though she does not let on that she recognizes any difference upon
seeing the replacement for the first time and seems genuinely

surprised when she hears Mme. Loisel's tale after ten years, it is
: suspicious that a woman of a higher class would not be able to tell the

difference.

Finally, the fact that the characters never find out what
happened to the necklace points toward the randomness of life and
importance of circumstance. As Maupassant writes, "How would it
have been if she had not lost that necklace? Who knows? Who knows?
How singular is life, and how full of changes! How small a thing will
ruin or save one!". This moral of the story may be seen as a critique of
the importance of social class, since the story demonstrates that a
simple accident or circumstance forced upon a person (since the
necklace could have been stolen purposefully) can doom a person to a
completely different way of life. At the same time, Maupassant
demonstrates that social class does not correlate to happiness, as
Mme. Loisel seems more content in her life and her marriage when in
the poor class than when behaving either as a middle- or upper-class

woman.
Themes: wd »
1- The Deceptiveness of Appearances:

The reality of Mathilde’s situation is that she is neither wealthy
nor part of the social class of which she feels she is a deserving
member, but Mathilde does everything in her power to make her life
appear different from how it is. She lives in an illusory world where her
actual life does not match the ideal life she has in her head—she
believes that her beauty and charm make her worthy of greater things.
The party is a triumph because for the first time, her appearance
matches the reality of her life. She is prettier than the other women,
sought after by the men, and generally admired and flattered by all.
Her life, in the few short hours of the party, is as she feels it should be.
However, beneath this rightness and seeming match of appearances
and reality is the truth that her appearance took a great deal of
scheming and work. The bliss of her evening was not achieved without
angst, and the reality of her appearance is much different than it
seems. Her wealth and class are simply illusions, and other people are

easily deceived.

The deceptiveness of appearances is highlighted by Madame
Forestier’s necklace, which appears to be made of diamonds but is
actually nothing more than costume jewelry. The fact that it comes
from Madame Forestier’s jewelry box gives it the illusion of richness
and value; had Monsieur Loisel suggested that Mathilde wear fake
jewels, she surely would have scoffed at the idea, just as she scoffed at
his suggestion to wear flowers. Furthermore, the fact that Madame

Forestier—in Mathilde’s view, the epitome of class and wealth—has a
necklace made of fake jewels suggests that even the wealthiest
members of society pretend to have more wealth than they actually
have. Both women are ultimately deceived by appearances: Madame
Forestier does not tell Mathilde that the diamonds are fake, and
Mathilde does not tell Madame Forestier that she has replaced the
necklace. The fact that the necklace changes— unnoticed—from
worthless to precious suggests that true value is ultimately dependent

on perception and that appearances can easily deceive.
-Th inger of mi:

Mathilde’s perception of herself as a martyr leads her to take
unwise, self-serving actions. The Loisels live, appropriately, on the Rue
des Martyrs, and Mathilde feels she must suffer through a life that is
well beneath what she deserves. Unable to appreciate any aspect of
her life, including her devoted husband, she is pained by her feeling
that her beauty and charm are being wasted. When Mathilde loses the
necklace and sacrifices the next ten years of her life to pay back the
debts she incurred from buying a replacement, her feeling of being a

martyr intensifies.

She undertakes the hard work with grim determination,
behaving more like a martyr than ever before. Her beauty is once again
being wasted; this work eventually erases it completely. Her lot in life
has gotten worse, and Mathilde continues to believe she has gotten
less than she deserves, never acknowledging the fact that she is
responsible for her own fate. Her belief in her martyrdom is, in a way,
the only thing she has left. When Madame Forestier reveals that the

necklace was worthless, Mathilde’s sacrifices also become worthless,
: and her status as a martyr—however dubious—is taken away entirely.
At the end of the story, Mathilde is left with nothing.

Whereas Mathilde sees herself as a martyr but is actually very far
from it, Monsieur Loisel himself is truly a martyr, constantly sacrificing
his desires and, ultimately, his wellbeing for Mathilde’s sake. He gives
up his desire for a gun so that Mathilde can buy a dress, and he
uncomplainingly mortgages his future to replace the necklace Mathilde
loses. Forced to sacrifice his happiness and years of his life to
accommodate Mathilde’s selfish desires, he is the one who truly

becomes a martyr.

3- The Perceived Power of Objects:

believes that objects have the power to change her life, but
when she finally gets two of the objects she desires most, the dress
and necklace, her happiness is fleeting at best. At the beginning of
“The Necklace,” we get a laundry list of all the objects she does not
have but that she feels she deserves. The beautiful objects in other
women’s homes and absence of such objects in her own home make
her feel like an outsider, fated to envy other women. The things she
does have—a comfortable home, hot soup, a loving husband—she
disdains. Mathilde effectively relinquishes control of her happiness to
objects that she does not even possess, and her obsession with the
trappings of the wealthy leads to her perpetual discontent. When she
finally acquires the dress and necklace, those objects seem to have a
transformative power. She is finally the woman she believes she was
meant to be—happy, admired, and envied. She has gotten what she
wanted, and her life has changed accordingly. However, when she
: loses the necklace, the dream dissolves instantly, and her life becomes
even worse than before. In reality, the power does not lie with the
objects but within herself.

In contrast to Mathilde, Madame Forestier infuses objects with
little power. Her wealth enables her to purchase what she likes, but
more important, it also affords her the vantage point to realize that
these objects are not the most important things in the world. She
seems casual about, and even careless with her possessions: when
Mathilde brazenly requests to borrow her striking diamond necklace,
she agrees. And later, when Mathilde informs her that the necklace in
her possession is actually extremely valuable, she seems more rattled
by the idea that Mathilde has sacrificed her life unnecessarily. The fact
that Madame Forestier owned fake jewels in the first place suggests
that she understands that objects are only as powerful as people
perceive them to be. For her, fake jewels can be just as beautiful and

striking as real diamonds if one sees them as such.

4-The Necklace:

In The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant, we have the theme of
materialism, insecurity, discontent, happiness, sacrifice, selflessness,
desperation and humility. Taken from his The Complete Short Stories
collection the story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed
narrator and after reading the story the reader realises that de
Maupassant may be exploring the theme of materialism. Mme Loisel
believes or at least fantasizes about the fact that her life would be
better if her circumstances were improved by the wealthy finery that

she imagines others to have. At no stage does she consider herself to
be fortunate in any way. To have a loving husband and a household
that is not in debt. She longs for a different type of life one that is
driven by materialism. It is as though Mme Loisel believes that should
she have what others (wealthy people) have she will be happy. That
her life will improve. If anything there is a sense that Mme Loisel is
insecure in the life that she lives and can only see herself happy should

she have material possessions.

At no stage in the story apart from when Mme Loisel is paying off
the debt does the reader suspect that she is content in any way.
Throughout the story she is driven by her desire to own things.
Considering this to be the marker for happiness. Mme Loisel appears to

believe that the more things that she owns the happier she will be.

De Maupassant also appears to be exploring the theme of
sacrifice. Rather than buying himself the gun that he had saved for
Monsieur Loisel gives the money (four hundred francs) to Mme Loisel
to buy a dress for the ball. He acts selflessly in order to allow Mme
Loisel feel comfortable before going to the ball. He also borrows the
thirty six thousand francs need to replace the necklace which 38
suggests not only that Monsieur Loisel is making another sacrifice but
he is also again acting selflessly. Helping Mme Loisel in order that she is
not accused of being a thief by Mme Forestier. Mme Loisel also makes
a sacrifice by selling her house and moving to smaller accommodation
and finding menial work to do in order to repay the debt incurred by
borrowing the money for the new necklace. It may also be important
to remember that the dramatic change in the Loisel’s life has been

caused by Mme Loisel’s desire to be somebody she is not. She is a
lower middle class woman who attempted to live her life (for one day)

as an upper class woman.

If anything Mme Loisel’s desperation to be somebody she is not
has resulted in her life changing dramatically and for the worse.
Though she does appear to be happy when she is working and paying
off the debt for the necklace. Whereas at the beginning of the story
she dreamt of living a wealthier more materialistic life and was
unhappy. It may also be important that Mme Forestier’s necklace is
paste (fake) because despite it being fake Mme Forestier is happy. She
is not as materialistically driven as Mme Loisel. Which may be the
point that de Maupassant is attempting to make. He might be
suggesting through Mme Forestier’s character that an individual can be
happy regardless of what they may own. Something that only appears
to dawn on Mme Loisel after she and Monsieur Loisel have successfully
paid off their debt for the necklace.

Though de Maupassant does not inform the reader directly as to
whether Mme Loisel has learnt her lesson. There is a sense that she
has. When she is repaying the debt for the necklace she is no longer
preoccupied with herself and her aspirations for material things. Her
main priority is to pay off the thirty six thousand francs. Also Mme
Loisel is described as being ‘glad’ that the whole affair of paying of the
necklace is over. Which further suggests that Mme Loisel may be
conscious enough to realise that she is now happy with what she has
got (husband and debt free).

Rather than chasing material things Mme Loisel appears to be
focusing on the things that she has. The simple things that she
: previously looked upon with disregard. No longer is she as discontent
even though she has spent ten years paying back the money for the
necklace. It is as though a weight has been lifted from Mme Loisel’s
shoulders. The desire for material things is no longer. Mme Loisel has
been humbled by her experiences over the last ten years. She may be
poor but she is happier than she previously was when she was driven
by her desire to own possessions that would have been of no use to

her.

The end of the story is also interesting as there is a hint of irony
in the fact that Mme Forestier tells Mme Loisel that the necklace was
only worth about five hundred francs. It is possible that de Maupassant
is highlighting the importance of appearance to Mme Loisel. She
originally chose the necklace because she believed that it was made of
diamonds. So over powering were Mme Loisel’s desires for material
things she never imagined that what she might have been wearing was
fake. In essence de Maupassant may be suggesting that not everything
an individual sees may be what it seems and that happiness comes

from within. Not from material possessions.
Chapter Three
Elements of Poetry

• Poetry: A type of literature that uses sounds, rhythms, and meanings
  of words to describe the word in striking and imaginative ways.

~ Structure: The way the words and lines are arranged.

= Speaker: The person or character who communicates the words of
the poem. Poetic Language is specific, imaginative, and rich with
emotion. Every form of poetry has its own structure.

-Lines: Poetry is divided into lines or groups of words.

Stanza: A series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty
line from other stanzas. One way to identify a stanza is to count the
number of lines. Thus:

• 
  

  couplet (2 lines) : a stanza that consists of two lines.

  
  


• 
  

  tercet (3 lines); a stanza that consists of three lines.

  
  


• 
  

  quatrain (4 lines): a stanza that consists of four lines.

  
  


• 
  

  cinquain (5 lines): a stanza that consists of five lines.

  
  


• 
  

  sestet(6lines): a stanza that consists of six lines.

  
  


• 
  

  septet(7 lines): a stanza that consists of seven lines.

  
  


• 
  

  octave (8 lines): a stanza that consists of eight lines.

  
  

= Form: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme
scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to
its form or style. Here are the three most common types of

poems according to form:
. Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the
poet) who expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems,
especially modern ones, are lyric poems.

2. 
   

   Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure
   resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and
   characters, rising action, climax and the denouement].

   
   


3. 
   

   Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that
   surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While
   emotional, it is more “outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is
   more personal and introspective.

   
   

In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of
sound and/or structure, or are free verse, are in one of the three

categories above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of
the above styles! Here are some more types of poems that are
subtypes of the three styles above:

Ode: It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious
subject, an elevated style, and an elaborate stanza pattern.

Elegy: It is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. It has no set metric or
stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead
person, then laments the reason for the death, and then resolves the
grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It often uses
“apostrophe” (calling out to the dead person) as a literary technique.
: Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English

version, is usually written in iambic pentameter.

=the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the Shakespearean (or
Elizabethan/English) sonnet.

-The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet: is named after Petrarch, an
Italian Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave
(eight lines) and a sestet (six lines).

-The Shakespearean sonnet: consists of three quatrains (four
lines each) and a concluding couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet
tends to divide the thought into two parts (argument and conclusion);
the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the summary).

Ballad: It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be
sung. A ballad is usually organized into quatrains or cinquains, has a
simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of ordinary people.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds
of a legendary or historical hero.

Qualities of an Epic Poem:

• narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding
  of a nation or some other heroic theme requires a

dignified theme requires an organic unity requires orderly
Emily Dickenson

Hope

“Hope” is the thing with feathers -
That perches in the soul -
And sings the tune without the words -

And never stops - at all -

And sweetest - in the Gale - is heard -
And sore must be the storm -
That could abash the little Bird

That kept so many warm -

I've heard it in the chillest land -
And on the strangest Sea -
Yet - never - in Extremity,

It asked a crumb - of me.

: Theme:

The theme of this poem revolves around the idea of hope. Emily
Dickenson reveals that hope is something which remains and resides in
human hearts; it leads one far away from despair and encourages him
in the time of hardships. Hope always gives and never takes. Hope is
like a bird that dwells within everyone's soul. Furthermore, she says
that in the time of great challenges, hope raises one's spirits and keeps
him warm. Ultimately, the notion of hope is what makes this poem
inspirational. It makes the reader know that there is a force out there
to get him through the dark days that life can throw in his way. Thus, it

points out the positive power and advantages of hope.

Figures of speech:

The poet uses an extended image which runs on throughout the
poem. There is a metaphor in "hope". The poet compares hope to a
bird which has feathers, sings, and flies high. This image connotes
happiness and optimism as it highlights the constructive influence of
hope on the human soul. Dickinson introduces her metaphor in the
first two lines "‘Hope’ is the thing with feathers— / That perches in the

soul—", then develops it throughout the poem by telling what this bird
does, how it reacts to hardship, where it can be found, and what it asks
for itself. There is a metaphor in “perches in the soul". The poet
compares the human soul to a nest or a home in which hope resides or
settles. This image reflects the impact of hope on the human soul.
Hope raises one's spirits and reinforces his aspiration. There is a
metonymy in "Gale". The poet uses a word "Gale" to denote hard
times which befall someone. This image shows the difficulty of hard
times and crises which hinder one's way through life. The words
"sweetest" and "sore" create gustatory image. They appeal to the
reader's sense of taste. This image reveals how hope transforms
bitterness to sweetness. The word the words "sing" and "heard"
appeal to the reader's sense of sound. They create an audible image
which conveys the experience of listening to the delightful tune of a
singing bird. They appeal to the reader's sense of sound. There is a
metonymy in "storm". The poet uses the word "storm" to denote hard
times which are inevitable and unavoidable in the earthly life. These
difficulties may intimidate and destroy this bird which stands for hope.

However, hope provides the individual with strength which enables

him to survive and overcome these predicaments. There is a

metonymy in “chillest land". The poet uses the word "chillest well
denote hopelessness or despair which always surround and befall the
human being. This image shows that hope invades hopeless souls and
changes their cases to the better. Thus, it stresses the positive and

constructive power of hope.

Sound Devices and form:

The poem is written in the form of a lyric which is a short musical
poem that can be sung. It has a single speaker who expresses her
personal thoughts and feelings. It contains many sound devices. The
rhyme scheme is mostly regular, following this pattern: abcb, defe,
ghih. It raises the sense of music and creates unity throughout the
poem. It indicates the continuity and growth of hope that can change
everything to the better and cultivate optimism. There is alliteration in
“sore” and "storm" due to the repetition of /s/ sound. It intensifies the
musical effect and creates unity between words. The repetition
indicates the sharpness of pains in the time of suffering and hardships.
There is alliteration in "strongest" and "sea" due to the repetition of
/s/ sound. It intensifies the musical effect and creates unity between
words. The repetition echoes the sense of silence which prevails in

distant places that are visited by hope.

Diction

The poet uses simple and lucid language which conveys her idea in a
straightforward style. There is a paradox between "sings" and “without
words". This contradiction shows that the influence of hope is internal
and subtle, but it never stops. This influence is continuous, sustainable
and far-reaching. In the line five, there is no subject in the sentence "is
heard". This omission creates compression, and the subject can be
guessed from the context. The subject here is the bird mentioned in
the first stanza. The verbs, "sings" and "stops" are used in present
tense in order to show immediacy and continuity of hope. It also shows
that the positive effect of hope is an undeniable fact. There is an
ellipsis in line number four, “And never stops- at all". It creates a pause
and extends the duration which emphasizes the idea of continuity of
hope. There is an anaphora in “and ". The repetition of word "and" at
the beginning of each line creates a sense of music and emphasizes the
poet's idea of the valuable and positive impact of hope. The poet
enumerates or lists the advantages and benefits of having hope. There
is a paradox between "sweetest" and "Gale". The contradiction shows
the positive change which hope can bring to the human soul. There is

capitalization in "Bird" and "Gale". The two words emphasize the
contradiction between the two cases. On the one hand, "Gale" shows

suffering and troubles. On the other hand, "Bird" connotes hope and
optimism. This image illustrates that in our life, there are ups and
downs, so suffering and happiness alternate. We always face
happiness and troubles, but hope can always overcome hard times. It
enables one to transcend all obstacles. There is an ellipsis in "it asked a
crumb-of me". It creates a pause which highlights the fact that hope
provides one with optimism and enthusiasm, but it does not ask for
anything in return. This shows the idea of self-denial. The word
“Extremity" is capitalized to magnify its effect. The speaker shows that
even in the most difficult situation, hope expects no pay or reward for

its valuable services.