Lakhasly

24:

1. 
   

   What are the three main groups of formed elements?
   Red blood cells,white blood cells, platelets.

   
   


2. 
   

   What is the most common plasma protein?
   The most common plasma protein is albumin.

   
   


3. 
   

   What is another name for a platelet?
   thrombocyte

   
   


4. 
   

   Which is the most common blood cell?
   The most common blood cells are erythrocyte or red blood cells.

   
   


5. 
   

   What is another name for a leukocyte?
   White blood cells.

   
   


6. 
   

   What leukocyte is most numerous in a normal blood smear?
   The most numerous leukocyte in normal blood smear is the neutrophil.

   
   


7. 
   

   How many erythrocytes are normally found per microliter of blood?
   There are about 5 million erythrocytes per microliter of blood.

   
   


8. 
   

   What is an average number of leukocytes found per microliter of blood?
   An average number of leukocytes found per microliter of blood is around 4.000 to 10,000.

   
   


9. 
   

   B cells and T cells belong to what class of agranulocytes?
   B and T cells belong to lymphocytes.

   
   


10. 
    

    How does a differential leukocyte count aid in medical diagnosis?
    Differential leukocytes count identifies percentages of different white blood cells for helping diagnosing infections and diseases.

    
    


11. 
    

    In counting 100 leukocytes you are accurately able to distinguish 15 basophils. Is this a normal number for the white blood cell count, and what possible health implications can you draw from this? It's not normal,a high basophil count might indicate allergic reactions.

    
    


12. 
    

    What is the function of platelets?
    The function of platelets is to help with blood clotting, and stop bleeding.

    
    


13. 
    

    Label the formed elements in the following illustration?
    A.erythrocytes
    B. platelets
    C. neutrophil
    D.basophil
    E. monocyte
    F. eosinophil
    G.lymphocyte

    
    


14. 
    

    In terms of volume, does blood normally contain more plasma or more formed elements? Blood normally contains more plasma than formed elements.

    
    


15. 
    

    A patient has a lymphocyte count of 42% of the total white blood cell count. What might be the clinical reason for this?
    The reason might be Bacterial infection or immune system disorders .

    
    

25:

1. What is the name of a surface membrane molecule that causes an immune reaction?
   An antigen.


2. What is the average range of hematocrit for a normal female?
   The average range of hematocrit for a normal female is 36% to 46%.


3. What is the average range of hematocrit for a normal male?
   The average range of hematocrit for a normal male is 40% to 50%.


4. What percent of the blood volume consists of formed elements?
   45% of the blood volume.


5. A person with blood type B has what kind of agglutinins (antibodies)?
   A person with blood type B has anti-A agglutinins.


6. A person has antibody A and antibody B in his or her blood, with no Rh antibody. What blood type does this person Have?
   Blood type AB.


7. A total of 240 erythrocytes are counted in the hemocytometer chamber. What is the red blood cell count of this individual in terms of erythrocytes per cubic milliliter?
   The red blood cell count is 4.8 million erythrocytes per cubic milliliter.


8. A person with blood type B negative is injected with type A positive blood. From an immunological (antigen/antibody) standpoint, what will happen after the injection?
   Type B negative injected with type A positive causes immune reaction and red blood cell clumping.


9. How might changes in the pipette technique alter the final determined value of erythrocytes? What types of errors might you expect?
   Altering pipette technique affects erythrocytes count,causing inaccurate red blood cell results.


10. Define anemia. Anemia means low red blood cells causing fatigue,weakness, and oxygen issues.


11. Explain the possible erroneous results you might get if you used just one toothpick to stir the various blood types, in the ABO blood test.
    One toothpick stirring blood samples in an ABO test can cause cross contamination, leading to inaccurate results.

26:

1. The heart is located between the lungs in an area known as the?
   mediastinum


2. Name the outermost (superficial) layer of the pericardium.?
   Fibrosis pericardium


3. What is the innermost layer of the heart wall called? endocardium


4. Name the depression between the two ventricles seen on the anterior surface of the heart.
   Interventricular sulcus.


5. Are auricles extensions of the atria or of the ventricles?
   Auricles are extensions of the atria.


6. What three vessels take blood to the right atrium?
   Superior vena cava and inferior.


7. Where do the great cardiac vein and the small cardiac vein take blood?
   Coronary sinus.


8. Is the apex of the heart superior or inferior to other parts of the heart?
   Inferior.


9. What blood vessels nourish the heart tissue?
   Coronary arteries.


10. What structure separates the left atrium from the right atrium
    Interatrial septum


11. The mitral valve is located between what two chambers of the heart?
    Left atrium and left ventricle.


12. What is the function of the aortic valve?
    It prevents blood from flowing into the left ventricle.


13. Name the structure found between the atrioventricular valve and the papillary muscle.
    Chordae tendineae.


14. What is the cell type that makes up most of the myocardium?
    cardiomyocytes.


15. The walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right ventricle. What explanation can you give for this?
    Ventricle pumps blood to the entrybody, and needs strong and thick walls.


16. How does cardiac muscle resemble skeletal muscle? (Review Exercise 5, if necessary)
    Both cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle have striations and are composed of muscle fibers.


17. In terms of function, how is cardiac muscle different from skeletal muscle?
    Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control.


18. What is the function of the pulmonary valves?
    The pulmonary valves prevent the backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle.


19. Trace the flow of blood through the heart.
    Blood flows from vena cava to the right atrium,right ventricle, lungs, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta.


20. Label the following illustration using the terms provided.
    A.right atrium
    B.right AV valve
    C.right ventricle
    D.aorta
    E.left atrium
    F. left AV valve
    G.left ventricle
    H.tendinous cords
    I.interventricular septum
    j.apex

27

1. The sinoatrial node has a common name. What is it?
   SA node or pacemaker.


2. Which two chambers of the heart (atria or ventricles) contract last in a normal cardiac cycle?
   Ventricles contract last.


3. What two chambers are stimulated immediately after the SA node depolarizes?
   The atria.


4. After the AV node depolarizes, what structures conduct the impulse to the myocardium of the ventricles?
   Bundle branches.


5. What are the main events recorded by an ECG?
   The P wave,QRS complex, and T wave.


6. What electrical event in the heart does the QRS complex represent?
   Ventricular depolarization.
   7.Ventricular repolarization is represented by what part of an ECG
   Ventricular repolarization is represented by the T wave.


7. What BCG wave is represented by the atrial depolarization?
   P wave.


8. Why is the BCG event indicating atrial repolarization not seen in an ECG?
   Because it happens during ventricular depolarization.


9. What does a heart block do to impulse transmission in the heart?
   Heart block disrupts transmission in the heart causing delay or block between the atria and ventricles.


10. Fibrillation is uncoordinated cardiac muscle contraction. Predict what an ECG would look like if there were no uniform conduction of electrical activity in the heart. Draw what it might look like.
    If there were no uniform conduction of electrical activity in the heart the ECG would show chaotic and uncoordinated waves.


11. What consequence does fibrillation have for cardiac muscle contraction and for the pumping efficiency of the heart? Which is more serious-atrial or ventricular fibrillation?
    Abnormal cardiac muscle rhythm in fibrillation reduces blood pumping effectiveness, ventricular fibrillation is more serious


12. If a myocardial infarct (heart attack) destroyed a portion of the right or left bundle branches, what potential change might you see in an ECG?
    If a myocardial infarct destroys a portion of the right or left bundle branches teh ECG may show abnormalities in ventricular depolarization.


13. Tape or paste your ECG in the following space. Label the P wave, the QRS complex, and the T wave.


14. What was your value for the mean electrical axis of the heart?
    The mean electrical axis of the heart is a measure of the whole direction of electrical activity in the heart.
    Was this within normal limits?
    The normal axis is between 30 and 90 degrees.

29:

1. 
   

   Label the following illustration with the major arteries of the body. Try to complete the illustration first and then review the material in this exercise to determine your accuracy.
   A. brachiocephalic v.
   B. left common carotid artery
   C.ascending aorta
   D.aortic arch
   E.internal carotid.
   F.superior mesenteric
   G. celiac artery.

   
   


2. 
   

   Which veins (superficial/deep) have names that do not correlate with arteries?
   Deep have names that do not correlate with arteries.

   
   


3. 
   

   What is the name of the outermost layer of a blood vessel?
   Tunica externa.

   
   


4. 
   

   What kind of blood vessels have valves?
   Veins have valves.

   
   


5. 
   

   An aneurysm is a weakened, expanded portion of an artery. Ruptured aneurysms can lead to rapid blood loss. Describe the significance of an aortic aneurysm versus a digital artery aneurysm.
   Aortic aneurysm is dangerous, could cause fatal internal bleeding due to size and blood pressure in the aorta.

   
   


6. 
   

   The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Why are these blood vessels called arteries?
   Arteries named based on the direction of blood flow.

   
   


7. 
   

   Blood from the common carotid artery next travels to what two vessels?
   Internal and external carotid artery.

   
   


8. 
   

   The internal carotid artery takes blood to what organ?
   To the brain.

   
   


9. 
   

   The descending aorta receives blood from what vessel?
   From the aortic arch.

   
   


10. 
    

    The right common carotid artery receives blood from what vessel?
    Brachiocephalic artery.

    
    


11. 
    

    Name three blood vessels that exit from the aortic arch
    Brachiocephalic trunk, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery.

    
    


12. 
    

    Name the section of descending aorta inferior to the diaphragm.
    Abdominal aorta.

    
    


13. 
    

    Blood from the celiac artery flows into three different blood vessels. What are these vessels?
    Hepatic artery,splenic artery,and left gastric artery.

    
    


14. 
    

    Blood from the superior mesenteric artery feeds which major abdominal organs?
    The small and large Intestine, and part of the stomach.

    
    


15. 
    

    What vessels take blood to the kidneys? by the renal arteries.

    
    


16. 
    

    The ovaries or testes receive blood from which arteries?
    Gonadal arteries.

    
    


17. 
    

    Blood in the inferior mesenteric artery travels to what organs?
    Large intestine.

    
    


18. 
    

    Where does blood in the external iliac artery come from?
    From the iliac artery.

    
    


19. 
    

    The internal jugular vein takes blood from what area?
    The head and neck area.

    
    


20. 
    

    What veins pass through the transverse vertebral foramina?
    The vertebral veins pass through the transverse vertebral foramina.

    
    


21. 
    

    The external jugular veins drain what area?
    From the scalp and face.

    
    


22. 
    

    What is the functional nature of a portal system, and how is it different from normal venous return flow?
    Normal veins are taken a one way street directly back home after visiting a tissue.
    Portal system is taking a detour via a special checkpoint before heading home.

    
    


23. 
    

    What major vessels take blood to the hepatic portal vein?
    Blood to the hepatic portal vein comes from the superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein.

    
    


24. 
    

    What is arteriosclerosis?
    Arteriosclerosis is the thickening of the walls of the arteries.

    
    


25. 
    

    In what part of the arterial wall does cholesterol plaque develop?.
    Tunica intima.

    
    


26. 
    

    Name the major veins that take blood from the brain.
    The internal jugular vein and vertebral veins.

    
    


27. 
    

    The basilar artery in the brain receives blood from what two arteries?
    The vertebral arteries and internal carotid arteries.

    
    

30:

1. Where does blood in the right subclavian artery come from?
   Comes from the Brachiocephalic artery.


2. Blood from the left subclavian artery flows into what vessel as it moves toward the left arm?.
   Into the axillary artery


3. Blood in the radial artery comes from what blood vessel?
   Brachial artery.


4. Is the radial vein a superficial or deep vein?
   Superficial vein.


5. Where is the median cubital vein found?
   In the antecubital fossa.


6. Where is the cephalic vein located?
   In the upper arm.


7. Blood from the right axillary vein travels next to what vessel?
   To the subclavian artery.


8. What vessel receives blood from the ulnar vein?
   The basilic vein


9. What artery takes blood directly to the femoral artery?
   Iliac artery takes blood directly to the femoral artery.


10. Blood from the popliteal artery comes directly from what artery?
    From the femoral artery.


11. What vessels take blood to the left femoral vein?
    left deep femoral vein and great saphenous vein.


12. In what region of the body is the great saphenous vein?
    In the legs.


13. Where does blood flow after it leaves the femoral vein?
    After blood leaves the femoral vein the blood flows into the external iliac vein.


14. In the fetal heart, what is the name of the shunt between the pulmonary trunk and the aortic arch?
    The ductus arteriosus.


15. Name the opening between the atria in the fetal heart.
    The foramen ovale.


16. A. axillary artery
    B.brachial artery
    C.radial artery
    D. ulnar artery
    E.femoral artery
    F. anterior
    G. dorsal artery

17.a. Brachial vein
B. femoral vein
C.cephalic vein
D. basilic vein
E.median cubital vein
F. great saphenous vein

31:

1. 
   

   Trace the flow of the lymphoid system from the region of the lymphatic capillaries to the subclavian veins.
   Lymph flow through capillaries, vessels, nods,trunk,ducts, and into subclavian veins for circulation.

   
   


2. 
   

   What are the names of the inner region and the outer region of a lymph node? Describe their functions.
   Lymph node has a cortex with lymphocytes fighting pathogens,and medulla with plasma cells producing antibodies.

   
   


3. 
   

   Once tissue fluid enters the lymphatic vessels, what is it called? What might be found in this fluid?
   It is called lymph, we might find cellular, proteins, pathogens,and white blood cells.

   
   


4. 
   

   Name the vessel that takes lymph to a lymph node and the vessel that takes lymph away from a lymph node.
   Afferent lymphatic vessels, efferent lymphatic vessels.

   
   


5. 
   

   An adenoid is enlarged. ......tonsil
   Pharyngeal tonsil.

   
   


6. 
   

   Which tonsils are found on the sides of the oral cavity?
   Palatine tonsils.

   
   


7. 
   

   What tonsils are located at the back of the tongue?
   Lingual tonsils.

   
   


8. 
   

   Blood is recycled by which lymphoid organ in the adult?
   By spleen .

   
   


9. 
   

   Where do T cells become immunocompetent
   In the thymus.

   
   


10. 
    

    From what you know of the functions of lymph nodes, make a prediction of the difference between lymph entering a node and lymph leaving a node. What materials may be missing from the lymph leaving the node
    Lymph enters nodes with pathogens, exits with fewer due to trapping and elimination within nodes.
    11.fill in the figure with the name of the organs or vessels?
    A.r.lymphatic duct
    B.thymus
    C. inguinal lymph node
    D.palatine tonsil
    E. thoracic duct
    F. axillary lymph node
    G.thoracic duct
    H.cisterna chyli
    I.spleen

    
    


11. 
    

    In the analysis of breast cancer, lymph nodes of the axillary region are removed and a biopsy is performed. The removal of the nodes is done to determine if cancer has spread from the breast to other regions of the body. What effect would the removal of lymph nodes have on the drainage of the pectoral region?
    Removal of axillary lymph nodes may cause lymphedema in the pectoral region,fluid buildup and immune response in the area.

    
    


12. 
    

    Lymphatic vessels have a one-way flow from the extremities to the heart. Damage to the lymphoid system can lead to edema, an increase in tissue fluid. From the standpoint of reducing edema, how does the use of medical leeches (segmented worms that drain tissue fluid) work for a region that has suffered trauma?
    Leeches remove excess fluid from the injured area,aiding edema reduction by enhancing fluid
    reabsorption and circulation.

    
    

32:

1. 
   

   The letters bpm stand for what phrase in cardiac measurement?
   Beats per minute.

   
   


2. 
   

   What is a sphygmomanometer and what does it measure?
   Sphygmomanometer is a device used to measure blood pressure.

   
   


3. 
   

   To measure blood pressure, what artery would you most commonly use and why?
   Brachial arteries commonly used for blood pressure measurement as easily accessible and accurate readings.

   
   


4. 
   

   If you have a blood pressure of 140/80, what does the 80 represent? What phase is the heart in at this point? The 80 represent the diastolic pressure, indicating the pressure in the heart when the heart is at rest.

   
   


5. 
   

   What is the clinical threshold for high blood pressure in young adults?.
   130/80 mmHg.

   
   


6. 
   

   When the first sound is heard during measurement with a blood pressure cuff, what is measured-systolic or diastolic pressure?
   Systolic pressure.

   
   


7. 
   

   Emotions have an effect on blood pressure. Predict the blood pressure of an individual who recently had a heated argument with a roommate about rent money.
   After a heated argument with a roommate, the individual pressure may be elevated because of stress.

   
   


8. 
   

   Illness can also affect blood pressure. Illness tends to increase stress responses. Predict the blood pressure of an individual with a sinus headache and postnasal drip.
   an individual with a sinus headache and postnasal drip may elevated blood pressure because of the illness-induced stress responses.

   
   


9. 
   

   Nicotine and caffeine both temporarily elevate blood pressure. Explain how a long-term increase in blood pressure could have a negative effect on the cardiac output.
   Nicotine and caffeine can worsen high blood pressure, straining the heart and increasing risk of heart failure.

   
   


10. 
    

    Record your blood pressure.

    
    


11. 
    

    How did the change in blood pressure after exercise vary from those people who were in shape versus those who were out of shape?
    After exercise , people who are in shape could experience a more effective form in blood pressure post exercise because of their well conditioned cardiovascular systems.

    
    


12. 
    

    According to the potential risk factors for hypertension, which, if any, do you have?
    I don't have any risk factors.

    
    


13. 
    

    What type of tissue makes up the endothelium of capillaries? What functional advantage does this tissue type provide to the capillary?
    Capillaries have a thin, permeable simple squamous epithelium endothelium ideal for substance exchange between blood tissues.

    
    


14. 
    

    Superficial veins contain valves. Inactive people may have problems with their veins in that blood pools in the veins. Can you propose a mechanism by which blood from the veins may be returned to the heart (other than standing on your head!)?
    Skeletal muscles contract during movement , aiding in blood flow back to the heart by creating a pumping action.

    
    

33:

1. 
   

   What is the common name for the external nares?
   nostrils.

   
   


2. 
   

   Some of the nasal cartilages are made of hyaline cartilage. What functional adaptation does cartilage have over bone in making up the external framework of the nose?
   Nasal cartilage shapes the nose, providing flexibility, movement, and protection,unlike rigid bone structures.

   
   


3. 
   

   The nasal fossae are separated from each other by what structure?
   Nasal septum.

   
   


4. 
   

   In lung cancer, there are frequently tumors in the lymphoid tissue. These may reduce the flow in the pulmonary arteries. What impact would this have on the respiratory system?
   Lymphoid tissue tumors may block pulmonary arteries, causing poor blood oxygenation and breathing problems.

   
   


5. 
   

   What is the function of respiratory epithelium and the superficial blood vessels in the nasal cavity?
   The respiratory epithelium helps filter inhaled air, while superficial blood vessels warm the air.

   
   


6. 
   

   Name the openings between the nasal cavity and the pharynx.
   The choanae.

   
   


7. 
   

   What is the name of the space behind the oral cavity and above the laryngopharynx?
   The nasopharynx.

   
   


8. 
   

   What is the name of the large cartilage of the anterior larynx?
   The thyroid cartilage.

   
   


9. 
   

   What membrane attaches directly to the lungs?
   The visceral pleura

   
   


10. 
    

    The trachea branches into two tubes that go to the lungs. What are these tubes called?
    bronchi.

    
    


11. 
    

    Where is the bronchial tree found?. In the respiratory system.

    
    


12. 
    

    What small structure in the lung is the site of exchange of oxygen with the blood capillaries?
    The alveoli.

    
    


13. 
    

    The surface area of the lungs in humans is about 70 square meters. How can this be so if the lungs are located in the small space of the thoracic cavity? What role do alveoli play in the nature of surface area?
    Lung has a 70m surface because of many alveoli, allowing ample area for efficient gas exchange.

    
    


14. 
    

    Emphysema is a destruction of the alveoli of the lungs. What effect does this have on the surface area of the lungs?

    
    


15. 
    

    A. nasal cavity
    B.posterior nasal apertures
    C.epiglottis
    d.cricoid cartilage
    E. trachea
    F. superior lobe
    G.middle lobe
    H.inferior lobe
    i.main bronchus