Lakhasly

UNIT TWO INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND PROCESSES 2.1 Diversity in Organizations Learning Objectives After studying this part, you should be able to: o Describe the two major forms of workforce diversity.Some cultures have a bias against emotional expression; others demand some display of emotion o How the emotions are expressed may make interpretation outside of one's culture difficult 21 (2.4) Personality and Values Learning Objectives After studying this part, you should be able to: o Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors that determine an individual's personality.Managers start by attracting, selecting, developing, and retaining employees who can operate and excel in a workplace with diverse individuals, viewpoints, and ideas.Gaining a diverse workforce through the selection process and developing that workforce through organizational training and development programs will help to provide for an environment that fosters creativity and effectiveness by tapping into the potential of all employees.o Define the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB. o Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. o Contrast the two types of ability.They include number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory.Economic environment and tenure < Organizational actions taken to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers 18 (2.3) Emotions and Moods Learning Objectives After studying this part, you should be able to: o Differentiate emotions from moods, and list the basic emotions and moods.o Identify other personality traits relevant to OB. Define values, demonstrate their importance, and contrast terminal and instrumental values.However, the inverse is true as well, if employees are dissatisfied in their work, these same job outcomes will be negatively impacted Job Performance Satisfied workers are more productive and more productive workers are more satisfied!Organizational Citizenship Behaviors o Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.Physical Ability is the second factor of ability and represents the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and other characteristics related to performance of physical tasks.Role of Disabilities When an organization discusses abilities, it can cause difficulty when developing policies that recognize diversity in terms of disabilities.While it is important for the organization to strive for diversity in the hiring process, it is important to be careful to avoid discriminatory practices during hiring by making generalizations about people with disabilities.Managers must work to develop strategies to develop ways to utilize differences to achieve work outcomes.People are willing to live with some discomfort but the degree to which this is true depends upon the importance of the elements, how much influences the individual has in the situation, and the rewards available.Negative emotions are seen as undesirable and positive emotions are desirable o However, value of each emotion varies across cultures o Do norms of emotional expression vary?o Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and assess its strengths and weaknesses.Surface-level diversity represents the characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, age etc.Schedules may also conflict with the way work is typically done, such as a Muslim worker adhering to the prayer schedule outlined in Islam.Ability : Ability is defined as an individual's capacity to perform the various tasks associated with the job.12 Number aptitude is the ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic and will be effective in jobs requiring mathematical ability, such as an a c c o u n t a n t .Implementing Diversity Management Strategies Knowing that people are different is not enough for organizations to operate effectively with differences.Attitudes Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.Emotions were typically seen as irrational so managers tended to work to make the workplace emotion-free.Often managers viewed emotions as disruptive to the workplace and therefore a hindrance to productivity.22 Personality Traits Even though personalities do change overtime, there are enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior.Some methods used to describe personality are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Model (BFM).The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator The MBTI is the most widely used personality instrument worldwide.The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions The Big Five model of personality sets forth that there are five basic dimensions that underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variations in human personalities.The Big Five factors are: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Openness to Experience.o Show how culture affects our understanding of biographical characteristics and intellectual abilities.Deep-level diversity represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality, and work preferences.Age is an increasingly relevant characteristic as the workforce is aging.Older workers bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experience, but the perception is that productivity often declines with age.R a c e and Ethnicity offers little explanation for differentials in workplace outcomes.Perceptual speed is the ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately.Deductive reasoning is the ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument.Flexibility factors include both components of extent flexibility and dynamic flexibility.14 2.2 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction Learning Objectives After studying this part, you should be able to: o Contrast the three components of an attitude.When attitudes and behaviors don't line up, individuals will experience cognitive dissonance.This incongruity is uncomfortable and individuals will seek to reduce the dissonance to find consistency.These factors include the importance of the attitude, the correspondence of the attitude to the behavior, the accessibility of the attitude, the existence of social pressures on behavior, and the personal and direct experience of the attitude.An additional job attitude is psychological empowerment, the belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence in the job, and job meaningfulness.Perception of fairness is a key factor in determining employees' willingness to work hard for the organization.Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is defined as a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.Typically, workers are more satisfied with the work itself and coworkers, while remaining less satisfied with promotion and pay.19 The Basic Emotions and Moods Not all psychologists agree; however, there do seem to be six basic emotions that emerge in studies: Anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise.These include selection of employees, decision making, creativity, motivation, and leadership: o Selection o Decision Making o Creativity o Motivation o Emotions should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs.We study personality in Organizational Behavior because it impacts a number of important work outcomes.We can attempt to measure personality through a variety of methods.The most common method is self-reporting surveys where individuals answer questions that determine what type of personality they have.Another, more accurate, method is when others observe the individual and provide an independent assessment of their personality.The first is extroverts who tend to be sociable and assertive verses introverts who tend to be quiet and shy.Sensors are practical and orderly where intuits utilize unconscious processes.Judgers want order and structure whereas perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous.o Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance: o Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better performance.Biographical Characteristics Biographical characteristics represent many of the surface-level aspects of diversity.Biographical characteristics typically include age, gender, and 10 race.However, women, especially those with pre-school age children, do prefer flexible work schedules and will seek an employer who offers options in their schedules.Tenure refers to the length of time people have been on the job and is tied to seniority.Often, tenure is seen as a positive as it signifies that people are happy with their employment because they have remained in their job for a long period of time.Therefore, employees with long tenure tend to be more productive, call in sick less frequently, and don't leave the organization as readily.The GMA takes a look at overall intelligence and is generally recognized by researchers.Depending on the requirements of the job, intelligence tests can be used to predict success on certain job tasks.Inductive reasoning is present when an individual can identify a logical sequence in a problem in order to help find a solution.Strength factors include dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, and explosive strength.15 Predicting Behavior from Attitudes Some variables do moderate the relationship between attitude and behavior.The field of Organizational Behavior focuses on how attitudes will influence the workplace.The first is job satisfaction, which is the positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.Employee engagement also goes beyond just job satisfaction and includes involvement and enthusiasm for the job.People are generally satisfied in their jobs in many countries, but over the last several years, job satisfaction has been decreasing.Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, they have four basic responses they can utilize.In voice, the employees will work toward active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.Even though there are some negative emotions that could hinder productivity, there is no doubt that workers bring their emotions to the workplace.There are some who think that emotions are linked to irrationality and that expressing emotions in public may be damaging to your career or status.20 OB Applications of Emotions and Moods There are numerous applications of emotions and moods.o Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and creativity.o Positive mood affects expectations of success; feedback amplifies this effect.o Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational leaders.o No. Culture can determine type, frequency, and depth of experienced emotions o Do people interpret emotions the same way?o Compare generational differences in values, and identify the dominant values in today's workforce.Often these methods are utilized in the hiring process to assist in hiring the right person for the job and the organization.If we see a trait consistently surface in different situations, this trait is important in describing the individual.Participants are classified within four scales to determine 1 of 16 possible personality types.o Describe how organizations manage diversity effectively.When we look at the workplace, we can recognize two levels of diversity.It can also include tenure, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity.Whether this is true or not, it is a perception people act upon and will impact the workplace.In studying gender in the workplace, it has been found that there are very few differences between men and women that impact job performance.It has been shown, however, that people in the workplace do identify more with people like themselves so in some cases there may be opportunities given to people based on the fact that they are like their supervisor.Religion may also impact work outcomes due to religious restrictions, such as dress and grooming.11 Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity are not protected by federal law and as a result they are handled differently by most employers.Often, these characteristics are dealt with just as if they were protected characteristics in order to discourage discriminatory behavior, whether it is covered by the law or not.There are a number of measures of intellectual ability available for use by organizations.Two representative measures are the GMA (General Mental Ability) measure and the Wonderlic Personnel Test.The Wonderlic is generally used as a quick measure of intelligence in the hiring process.An employee who needs to make decisions about the future based on historical information will need the ability of inductive reasoning.When making choices between two different possible solutions to a problem, a manager would need to call upon their deductive reasoning skills.An employee who needs to make decisions about office setup or interior design would need to have a high level of spatial visualization ability.Individuals who need to act quickly in a situation, such as a paramedic or nurse, would need a significant degree of memory ability.Nine Basic Physical Abilities Physical abilities are needed when performance requires physical activity to complete a task.Other strength factors include body coordination, balance, and stamina.Define job satisfaction and show how it can be measured.The behavioral component describes the intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.Sometimes we observe people who will change what they say so it doesn't contradict their behavior.Job involvement, Job involvement looks at the degree of psychological identification with the job.Perceived organizational support is the degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.There are multiple 16 ways to measure job satisfaction, but the most accurate way is to ask the question if people are satisfied in their jobs and provide them with a scale to report their degree of satisfaction.When work is divided up into facets, results vary.These options are divided into active and passive choices.Outcomes of Job Satisfaction When employees are satisfied with their work, there are many positive outcomes in the workplace.o Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.o Contrast the experience, interpretation, and expression of emotions across cultures.Emotions and Moods Historically the study of organizational behavior has not given much attention to emotions.However, when thinking about emotions, typically managers were focusing on negative emotions.Therefore, any study in organizational behavior would not be complete without considering the roles of emotions in the workplace.Some psychologists even place these basic six on a spectrum of emotion.Also, our basic moods carry positive and negative affects, they cannot be neutral.These states impact how employees perceive reality and thereby the moods can impact the work of employees.Global Implications o Do people experience emotions equally?o Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work.Personality is often defined by characteristics such as outgoing or charming.However, psychologists define personality as the growth and development of a person's whole psychological system.The second dichotomy is sensing and intuitive.Thinking focuses on using reason and logic where feeling utilizes values and emotions.Linking Personality to the Workplace This idea can be further linked to the workplace by looking at person-organization fit.When employees find organizations that match their values, they are more likely to be selected and correspondingly be more satisfied with their work.The big five personality types are often helpful in matching the individuals with organizational culture.Diversity: Everybody brings differences to an organization where they work.These differences can create energy and excitement in the workplace, but they can also cause conflict.So, it is important that we have an understanding of how diversity works in organizations.Then, companies try to create cultures that provide a safe environment for all employees and cultures free of discriminatory behavior.When ability is dissected, two key factors are found.The first factor set apart is intellectual ability.However, there has been no correlation found between intelligence and job satisfaction.Dimensions of Intellectual Ability Intellectual ability is made up of many dimensions.Verbal comprehension is the ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other.This ability will be helpful in jobs where the manager needs to understand policies in order to carry out their job tasks.Spatial Visualization is when someone can imagine how an object would look if its position in space was changed.Memory is the ability to retain and recall past experiences.There are three main categories of physical 13 ability - strength, flexibility and other.Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.Compare and contrast the major job attitudes.Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.o Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction.Attitudes are made up of three components.The cognitive component is made up of the belief in the way things are.The affective component is the more critical part of the attitude as it is calls upon the emotions or feelings.These three components work together to aid in our understanding of the complexity of an attitude.These variables will impact the ability to predict how a certain attitude will predict behavior.This is an important job attitude because it incorporates so many of the other measures.The passive options are neglect and loyalty.Employees may choose to neglect their work and just allow conditions to worsen or they may choose to remain loyal to the organization and just wait for change.o Customer Satisfaction o Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.o Absenteeism o Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.o Many moderating variables in this relationship.o Discuss whether emotions are rational and what functions they serve.o Identify the sources of emotions and moods.o Describe Affective Events Theory and identify its applications.Sources of Emotion and Mood There are many things that impact our mood and emotions.Personality is a key component and will definitely impact the intensity of the emotions we feel.Stress is an important factor and even at low levels it can cause our mood to change.Social activities have been shown to have a positive impact on our moods.o Identify Hofstede's five value dimensions of national culture.The final dichotomy is judging and perceiving.There is a lot of research that supports the Big Five model and it has been shown to predict behavior at work.How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior?o Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.o Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.< Agreeable people are good in social settings.These a r e characteristics that are very easy to identify.This is the ability to perform mental activities.This particular ability is helpful when an employee needs to take in a lot of information and make decisions about the patterns, such as a detective or inspector.Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?What are the Major Job Attitudes?There are several major job attitudes.The active options are exit and voice.If employees select to exit, they choose to leave or move in a direction of leaving the organization.The causality may run both ways.o Turnover o Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.o Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence.Emotions are grouped into general mood states.What Is the Function of Emotion?However, research has shown that emotions are necessary for rational thinking.They help us make better decisions and help us understand the world around us. If we are going to make decisions, we need to incorporate both thinking and feeling.It is important to maintain a low level of stress to help us control our psychological as well as our physical health.This could be physical outlets such as playing in a basketball league or it can be going out to dinner with friends.These types of activities are found to have a positive impact on our mood.o Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model.These types are broken down into four dichotomies.The third dichotomy is thinking and feeling.o Research has shown this to be a better framework.Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills.o Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.The employee's personality needs to fit with the organizational culture.Often, it takes less than ten minutes to complete.The more engaged the worker is, the more passionate they will be about their work.o Show the impact emotional labor has on employees.All other emotions fall under these six.The day and time of the week is a common pattern for all of us. Many are happier toward the end of the week.Weather is thought to have an impact on our emotions, but there is no proven effect.o Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.o Yes.o Yes.What is Personality?

UNIT TWO
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND PROCESSES
2.1 Diversity in Organizations
Learning Objectives
After studying this part, you should be able to:
• Describe the two major forms of workforce diversity.
• Define the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are
relevant to OB.
• Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB.
• Contrast the two types of ability.
• Describe how organizations manage diversity effectively.
• Show how culture affects our understanding of biographical
characteristics and intellectual abilities.
Diversity:
Everybody brings differences to an organization where they work.
These differences can create energy and excitement in the workplace, but
they can also cause conflict. So, it is important that we have an
understanding of how diversity works in organizations.
When we look at the workplace, we can recognize two levels of diversity.
Surface-level diversity represents the characteristics that are easily
observed such as race, gender, age etc. Deep-level diversity represents the
aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values,
personality, and work preferences.
Biographical Characteristics
Biographical characteristics represent many of the surface-level aspects
of diversity. These a r e characteristics that are very easy to
identify. Biographical characteristics typically include age, gender, and
10
race. It can also include tenure, religion, sexual orientation, and gender
identity.
Age is an increasingly relevant characteristic as the workforce is aging.
Older workers bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experience, but
the perception is that productivity often declines with age. Whether this is
true or not, it is a perception people act upon and will impact the
workplace.
In studying gender in the workplace, it has been found that there are
very few differences between men and women that impact job
performance. However, women, especially those with pre-school age
children, do prefer flexible work schedules and will seek an employer who
offers options in their schedules.
R a c e and Ethnicity offers little explanation for differentials in
workplace outcomes. It has been shown, however, that people in the
workplace do identify more with people like themselves so in some cases
there may be opportunities given to people based on the fact that they are
like their supervisor.
Tenure refers to the length of time people have been on the job and is
tied to seniority. Often, tenure is seen as a positive as it signifies that people
are happy with their employment because they have remained in their job
for a long period of time. Therefore, employees with long tenure tend to be
more productive, call in sick less frequently, and don't leave the
organization as readily.
Religion may also impact work outcomes due to religious restrictions,
such as dress and grooming. Schedules may also conflict with the way
work is typically done, such as a Muslim worker adhering to the prayer
schedule outlined in Islam.
11
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity are not protected by federal
law and as a result they are handled differently by most employers. Often,
these characteristics are dealt with just as if they were protected
characteristics in order to discourage discriminatory behavior, whether it is
covered by the law or not.
Then, companies try to create cultures that provide a safe environment
for all employees and cultures free of discriminatory behavior.
Ability :
Ability is defined as an individual's capacity to perform the various
tasks associated with the job. When ability is dissected, two key factors are
found. The first factor set apart is intellectual ability. This is the ability to
perform mental activities. There are a number of measures of intellectual
ability available for use by organizations. Two representative measures are
the GMA (General Mental Ability) measure and the Wonderlic Personnel
Test. The GMA takes a look at overall intelligence and is generally
recognized by researchers. The Wonderlic is generally used as a quick
measure of intelligence in the hiring process. Often, it takes less than ten
minutes to complete. Depending on the requirements of the job,
intelligence tests can be used to predict success on certain job tasks.
However, there has been no correlation found between intelligence and job
satisfaction.
Physical Ability is the second factor of ability and represents the capacity
to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and other
characteristics related to performance of physical tasks.
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability
Intellectual ability is made up of many dimensions. They include
number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive
reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory.
12
Number aptitude is the ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic and
will be effective in jobs requiring mathematical ability, such as an
a c c o u n t a n t .
Verbal comprehension is the ability to understand what is read or heard
and the relationship of words to each other. This ability will be helpful in
jobs where the manager needs to understand policies in order to carry out
their job tasks.
Perceptual speed is the ability to identify visual similarities and
differences quickly and accurately. This particular ability is helpful when
an employee needs to take in a lot of information and make decisions about
the patterns, such as a detective or inspector.
Inductive reasoning is present when an individual can identify a logical
sequence in a problem in order to help find a solution. An employee who
needs to make decisions about the future based on historical information
will need the ability of inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is the ability to use logic and assess the
implications of the argument. When making choices between two different
possible solutions to a problem, a manager would need to call upon their
deductive reasoning skills.
Spatial Visualization is when someone can imagine how an object
would look if its position in space was changed. An employee who needs
to make decisions about office setup or interior design would need to have
a high level of spatial visualization ability.
Memory is the ability to retain and recall past experiences. Individuals
who need to act quickly in a situation, such as a paramedic or nurse, would
need a significant degree of memory ability.
Nine Basic Physical Abilities
Physical abilities are needed when performance requires physical
activity to complete a task. There are three main categories of physical
13
ability - strength, flexibility and other.
Strength factors include dynamic strength, trunk strength, static
strength, and explosive strength. Flexibility factors include both
components of extent flexibility and dynamic flexibility. Other strength
factors include body coordination, balance, and stamina.
Role of Disabilities
When an organization discusses abilities, it can cause difficulty when
developing policies that recognize diversity in terms of disabilities.
While it is important for the organization to strive for diversity in the hiring
process, it is important to be careful to avoid discriminatory practices
during hiring by making generalizations about people with disabilities.
Implementing Diversity Management Strategies
Knowing that people are different is not enough for organizations to
operate effectively with differences. Managers must work to develop
strategies to develop ways to utilize differences to achieve work outcomes.
Managers start by attracting, selecting, developing, and retaining
employees who can operate and excel in a workplace with diverse
individuals, viewpoints, and ideas. Gaining a diverse workforce through
the selection process and developing that workforce through
organizational training and development programs will help to provide for
an environment that fosters creativity and effectiveness by tapping into the
potential of all employees.
14
2.2 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
Learning Objectives
After studying this part, you should be able to:
• Contrast the three components of an attitude.
Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Compare and contrast the major job attitudes.
Define job satisfaction and show how it can be measured.
Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.
• Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction.
Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects,
people, or events. Attitudes are made up of three components. The
cognitive component is made up of the belief in the way things are. The
affective component is the more critical part of the attitude as it is calls
upon the emotions or feelings. The behavioral component describes the
intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
These three components work together to aid in our understanding of the
complexity of an attitude.
Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?
Sometimes we observe people who will change what they say so it
doesn't contradict their behavior. When attitudes and behaviors don't line
up, individuals will experience cognitive dissonance. This incongruity is
uncomfortable and individuals will seek to reduce the dissonance to find
consistency.
People are willing to live with some discomfort but the degree to which
this is true depends upon the importance of the elements, how much
influences the individual has in the situation, and the rewards available.
15
Predicting Behavior from Attitudes
Some variables do moderate the relationship between attitude and
behavior. These factors include the importance of the attitude, the
correspondence of the attitude to the behavior, the accessibility of the
attitude, the existence of social pressures on behavior, and the personal and
direct experience of the attitude. These variables will impact the ability to
predict how a certain attitude will predict behavior.
What are the Major Job Attitudes?
The field of Organizational Behavior focuses on how attitudes will
influence the workplace. There are several major job attitudes. The first is
job satisfaction, which is the positive feeling about the job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics.
Job involvement, Job involvement looks at the degree of psychological
identification with the job. An additional job attitude is psychological
empowerment, the belief in the degree of influence over the job,
competence in the job, and job meaningfulness.
Perceived organizational support is the degree to which employees
believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their
well-being. Perception of fairness is a key factor in determining employees'
willingness to work hard for the organization. Employee engagement also
goes beyond just job satisfaction and includes involvement and enthusiasm
for the job. The more engaged the worker is, the more passionate they will
be about their work.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is defined as a positive feeling about a job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics. This is an important job attitude
because it incorporates so many of the other measures. There are multiple
16
ways to measure job satisfaction, but the most accurate way is to ask the
question if people are satisfied in their jobs and provide them with a scale
to report their degree of satisfaction.
People are generally satisfied in their jobs in many countries, but over
the last several years, job satisfaction has been decreasing. When work is
divided up into facets, results vary. Typically, workers are more satisfied
with the work itself and coworkers, while remaining less satisfied with
promotion and pay.
Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction
When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, they have four basic
responses they can utilize. These options are divided into active and
passive choices. The active options are exit and voice. If employees select
to exit, they choose to leave or move in a direction of leaving the
organization. In voice, the employees will work toward active and
constructive attempts to improve conditions. The passive options are
neglect and loyalty. Employees may choose to neglect their work and just
allow conditions to worsen or they may choose to remain loyal to the
organization and just wait for change.
Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
When employees are satisfied with their work, there are many positive
outcomes in the workplace. However, the inverse is true as well, if
employees are dissatisfied in their work, these same job outcomes will be
negatively impacted
Job Performance
Satisfied workers are more productive and more productive
workers are more satisfied!
The causality may run both ways.
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
• Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.
• Customer Satisfaction
• Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction
and loyalty.
• Absenteeism
• Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.
• Turnover
• Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
• Many moderating variables in this relationship.
Economic environment and tenure
‹ Organizational actions taken to retain high performers
and to weed out lower performers
18
(2.3) Emotions and Moods
Learning Objectives
After studying this part, you should be able to:
• Differentiate emotions from moods, and list the basic emotions and
moods.
• Discuss whether emotions are rational and what functions they serve.
• Identify the sources of emotions and moods.
• Show the impact emotional labor has on employees.
• Describe Affective Events Theory and identify its applications.
• Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional
intelligence.
• Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.
• Contrast the experience, interpretation, and expression of emotions
across cultures.
Emotions and Moods
Historically the study of organizational behavior has not given much
attention to emotions. Emotions were typically seen as irrational so
managers tended to work to make the workplace emotion-free.
Often managers viewed emotions as disruptive to the workplace and
therefore a hindrance to productivity. However, when thinking about
emotions, typically managers were focusing on negative emotions. Even
though there are some negative emotions that could hinder productivity,
there is no doubt that workers bring their emotions to the workplace.
Therefore, any study in organizational behavior would not be complete
without considering the roles of emotions in the workplace.
19
The Basic Emotions and Moods
Not all psychologists agree; however, there do seem to be six basic
emotions that emerge in studies: Anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust,
surprise. All other emotions fall under these six. Some psychologists even
place these basic six on a spectrum of emotion.
Also, our basic moods carry positive and negative affects, they cannot
be neutral. Emotions are grouped into general mood states. These states
impact how employees perceive reality and thereby the moods can impact
the work of employees.
What Is the Function of Emotion?
There are some who think that emotions are linked to irrationality and
that expressing emotions in public may be damaging to your career or
status. However, research has shown that emotions are necessary for
rational thinking. They help us make better decisions and help us
understand the world around us. If we are going to make decisions, we
need to incorporate both thinking and feeling.
Sources of Emotion and Mood
There are many things that impact our mood and emotions. Personality
is a key component and will definitely impact the intensity of the emotions
we feel. The day and time of the week is a common pattern for all of us.
Many are happier toward the end of the week. Weather is thought to have
an impact on our emotions, but there is no proven effect.
Stress is an important factor and even at low levels it can cause our
mood to change. It is important to maintain a low level of stress to help us
control our psychological as well as our physical health. Social activities
have been shown to have a positive impact on our moods. This could be
physical outlets such as playing in a basketball league or it can be going out
to dinner with friends. These types of activities are found to have a positive
impact on our mood.
20
OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
There are numerous applications of emotions and moods. These include
selection of employees, decision making, creativity, motivation, and
leadership:
• Selection
• Decision Making
• Creativity
• Motivation
• Emotions should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs.
• Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.
• Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and creativity.
• Positive mood affects expectations of success; feedback
amplifies this effect.
• Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from
organizational leaders.
Global Implications
• Do people experience emotions equally?
• No. Culture can determine type, frequency, and depth of
experienced emotions
• Do people interpret emotions the same way?
• Yes. Negative emotions are seen as undesirable and positive
emotions are desirable
• However, value of each emotion varies across cultures
• Do norms of emotional expression vary?
• Yes. Some cultures have a bias against emotional expression;
others demand some display of emotion
• How the emotions are expressed may make interpretation
outside of one's culture difficult
21
(2.4) Personality and Values
Learning Objectives
After studying this part, you should be able to:
• Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors
that determine an individual's personality.
• Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and
assess its strengths and weaknesses.
• Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model.
• Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work.
• Identify other personality traits relevant to OB.
Define values, demonstrate their importance, and contrast terminal and
instrumental values.
• Compare generational differences in values, and identify the dominant
values in today's workforce.
• Identify Hofstede's five value dimensions of national culture.
What is Personality?
Personality is often defined by characteristics such as outgoing or
charming. However, psychologists define personality as the growth and
development of a person's whole psychological system.
We study personality in Organizational Behavior because it impacts a
number of important work outcomes.We can attempt to measure
personality through a variety of methods. Often these methods are utilized
in the hiring process to assist in hiring the right person for the job and the
organization. The most common method is self-reporting surveys where
individuals answer questions that determine what type of personality they
have. Another, more accurate, method is when others observe the
individual and provide an independent assessment of their personality.
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Personality Traits
Even though personalities do change overtime, there are enduring
characteristics that describe an individual's behavior. If we see a trait
consistently surface in different situations, this trait is important in
describing the individual.
Some methods used to describe personality are the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Model (BFM).
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The MBTI is the most widely used personality instrument worldwide.
Participants are classified within four scales to determine 1 of 16 possible
personality types. These types are broken down into four dichotomies.
The first is extroverts who tend to be sociable and assertive verses
introverts who tend to be quiet and shy. The second dichotomy is sensing
and intuitive. Sensors are practical and orderly where intuits utilize
unconscious processes. The third dichotomy is thinking and feeling.
Thinking focuses on using reason and logic where feeling utilizes values
and emotions. The final dichotomy is judging and perceiving. Judgers
want order and structure whereas perceivers are more flexible and
spontaneous.
The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions
The Big Five model of personality sets forth that there are five basic
dimensions that underlie all others and encompass most of the significant
variations in human personalities. The Big Five factors are: Extroversion,
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Openness to
Experience. There is a lot of research that supports the Big Five model and
it has been shown to predict behavior at work.
How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior?
• Research has shown this to be a better framework.
• Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job
performance:
• Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge,
exert greater effort, and have better performance.
• Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.
• Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good
social skills.
• Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
‹ Agreeable people are good in social settings.
Linking Personality to the Workplace
This idea can be further linked to the workplace by looking at
person-organization fit. The employee's personality needs to fit with the
organizational culture. When employees find organizations that match
their values, they are more likely to be selected and correspondingly be
more satisfied with their work. The big five personality types are often
helpful in matching the individuals with organizational culture.
Va l u e s
Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live your life
that is personally or socially preferable - "How To" live life properly. There
are two attributes o f values:
• Content Attribute - that the mode of conduct or end-state is
important
• Intensity Attribute - just how important that content is
Also, a person's value system ranks values by their intensity. This tends to
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be relatively constant over time.
Importance of Values
Values are very important because they provide an understanding of
attitudes, motivation, and behaviors. Values play a role in how we perceive
the world around us and how we interpret right and wrong. Values imply
that some behaviors are preferred over others based on how/what we value.
Global Implications

1. Personality
   There are global implications to personality and values in the workplace.
   Frameworks such as the big five and MBTI are transferable across cultures;
   in fact, the MBTI has been used worldwide. However, the applicability is
   higher in some cultures than others. Values, on the other hand, differ to a
   great degree across cultures.


2. Values
   Geert Hofstede developed a framework for assessing culture. He breaks up
   his framework of understanding into five value dimensions: power
   distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity,
   uncertainty avoidance, and long-term vs. short-term orientation.
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   (2.5) Perception
   Learning Objectives
   After studying this part, you should be able to:
   • Define perception and explain the factors that influence it.
   • Explain attribute theory and list the three determinants of attribution.
   • Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about
   others.
   • Explain the link between perception and decision making.
   • Apply the rational model of decision making and contrast it with
   bounded rationality and intuition
   • Explain how individual differences and organizational constraints
   affect decision making.
   • Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.
   • Define creativity and discuss the three-component model of creativity.
   What is Perception?
   Perception is the way people organize the massive amounts of information
   they receive into patterns that give it meaning.
   • A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
   impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
   • People's behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not
   on reality itself.
   • The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally
   important.
   So, people will use their perceptions of reality, not reality itself, to decide
   how to behave.
   Factors that Influence Perception
   There are many factors that influence people's perceptions. The factors
   are either in the perceiver such as attitudes and experience; in the situation
   such as social setting and time; or in the target such as sounds, size, or
   background.
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   Factors in the perceiver
   • A t t i t u d e s
   • M o t i v e s
   • I n t e r e s t s
   • Experience
   • Expectations
   Factors in the situation
   • Time
   • Wo r k setting
   • Social setting
   Perception
   Factors in the target
   • Novelty
   • M o t i o n
   • S o u n d s
   • S i z e
   • Background
   • Proximity
   • Similarity
   Attribution Theory: Judging Others
   The attribution theory helps us to understand our perceptions about
   others. Research has shown that our perceptions about others are based
   upon the assumptions we make about them. The attribution theory says
   that when we observe behavior we try to determine if it is internally or
   externally driven. If it is internally driven it is under the person's control
   whereas external causes are not under the individual's control.
   We can use three factors to help us decide if behavior is internally or
   externally controlled:distinctiveness,
   consensus, consistency.
   Distinctiveness shows different behaviors in different situations.
   Consensus looks at the response and compares it to others in the same
   situation to see if it is consistent with the behaviors of others. Consistency
   looks to see if the response is the same over time.
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   Elements of Attribution Theory
   Observation • Interpretation
   Distinctiveness
   Individual behavior Consensus
   Consistency
   High
   Low
   High
   Low
   High
   Low
   Attribution
   of cause
   External
   Internal
   External
   Internal
   Internal
   External
   This chart looks at the elements of the attribution theory and helps us to
   make the connection between external or internal driven factors. For
   example if consensus is high then it is most likely externally driven
   whereas if consensus is low it tends to be more internally driven.
   Frequently Used Shorteuts in Judging Others
   There are some frequently used shortcuts we use when judging others.
   People will often utilize past experience, their attitudes, and their interests
   to interpret information about others and reinforce their own biases.
   Relying on these shortcuts can lead to misperceiving the situation.
   Another shortcut,stereotyping is a typical shortcut we utilize in the
   perception process. It is making generalizations about an individual based
   on the group to which that person belongs. This generalization can be
   useful in making decisions, it can also be inaccurate and cause us to
   mistakenly develop a perception about an individual that is not
   representative of who they are. Profiling is an application of stereotyping
   where members of a group are singled out for scrutiny based on a single
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   trait.
   Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations
   Organizations use these shortcuts often to make decisions. The
   employment interview is a prime example of this. Many perceptions
   formed by the interviewers impact their judgments of the applicants.
   These perceptions are formed very rapidly, some researchers even say
   within one tenth of a second
   Performance expectations often incorporate perception shortcuts as well.
   When expectations are set, there is a self-fulfilling prophecy that works
   itself out. The higher the expectations, the better people tend to perform
   and vice versa. Performance evaluations are often a very subjective process
   and incorporate many of the shortcuts discussed previously. This particular
   application has significant impact on employees and their wages.
   Decision-Making Models in Organizations
   Decision making is done by individuals but occurs in organizations.
   There are some models that can help us think through decision making in
   organizations. The first is the Rational Decision-Making model. This
   model assumes a perfect world in order to make decisions. It assumes that
   there is complete information, that every option has been identified and
   that there is a maximum payoff. The second, Bounded Reality, represents
   more of the real world where it seeks solutions that are the best, given the
   information that is available. The third model is based on Intuition. This is
   the non-conscious process that occurs as a result of experiences that result
   in quick decisions.
   Individual Differences in Decision Making
   Individuals incorporate not only their own biases, but also their own
   characteristics in their decision making. Personality, such as characteristics
   outlined in the Big Five dimensions, can influence decision making such as
   conscientiousness and self-esteem. Gender also plays a role in decision
   making. Women tend to analyze decisions more than men and this can
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   cause them to ruminate over their decisions. The reasons for this are
   undetermined. Some psychologists speculate that parents encourage their
   daughters to express their feelings more readily than sons and another
   theory is that women are more worried about what others think about them
   and this causes them to worry more about their decisions. Women tend to
   be more empathetic and this can also cause them to think about how their
   decisions impact others.
   Mental ability also influences decision making. People with higher
   levels of mental ability make decisions more quickly as well as make better
   decisions because they are able to process information more effectively.
   Ethics Perceptions of OB
   Most of the ethical perspective of OB regarding perceptions issues is
   ethics in decision making. Ethics should play a role in decision making.
   There are three ethical criteria that influence decisions. The first is
   utilitarianism, where the decisions are based on the outcome of the
   solution. The outcome is analyzed based on seeking the greatest good for
   the greatest number of people and is the dominant method for
   businesspeople. The second criterion is rights, where decisions are based
   on fundamental liberties and privileges in an attempt to protect the basic
   rights of individuals. The final criterion is justice, where the decision
   imposes rules in a fair and impartial manner and equitably distributes
   benefits and costs.
   Improving Creativity for People
   Better decisions are those that incorporate novel and useful ideas, better
   known as creativity. An organization will tend to make better decisions
   when creative people are involved in the process. So it is important to
   identify people who have that creative potential. Some of the methods and
   theories identified in earlier can help in this process. For example, those
   who score high in openness to experience tend to be more creative.