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er the years, however, certain agreements or joint actions involving interstate (but not international) trade have come to be classified as automatically illegal, or per se violations.(4) joint refusals to deal (i.e., group boycotts).These include ??
er the years, however, certain agreements or joint actions involving interstate (but not international) trade have come to be classified as automatically illegal, or per se violations. These include
(1) horizontal price fixing (where competitors at the same level expressly or impliedly agree to charge the same price for competing products),
(2) vertical price fixing (where a seller at one level sells goods to a buyer at a different level on the condition that the latter will not resell below an agreed-upon price),
(3) horizontal market division (where competitors agree not to sell in each other’s territories), and
(4) joint refusals to deal (i.e., group boycotts).
Once a particular kind of activity is classified as a per se violation, the courts do not apply the case-by-case rule of reason analysis but proceed directly to a consideration of the appropriate remedy in the particular case.
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