Lakhasly

Chapter Tow: Teachers and Teaching Introduction Any study of the teacher starts with raising questions like: Who are teachers?Very often teachers need to make decisions with minimal knowledge ("will my students integrate ideas better if I require them to prepare for a formal exam or if I assign a take-home exam on this new topic that I am teaching for the first time,"). However, teachers do not always make decisions independently. Many decisions are influenced by the behaviour of previous teachers or parents, learners' peers, and school policies. Some instructional decisions are not made in a conscious, deliberate way, often because teachers simply do not see a problem. One teacher may see a learner as a pleasant, capable, hard working whereas another teacher may realise that this learner is anxious and excessively dependent on teachers, performing capably because he or she is a compulsive worker and socially withdrawn, seldom engaging with peers. If teachers are unaware of such problems, the decisions they will have to handle about that learner will be less than optimal. II. Classroom management One of the main tasks of a teacher is how to create social and physical environments for learning; classroom management, then, is a crucial concern to any teacher who seeks to achieve effective teaching. The very nature of classes, teaching and learners makes good management a critical ingredient for success. But is classroom management easily achived? What are the special managerial demands of classes and the needs of learners of different ages? II. 1. The need for organisation Classrooms are by nature multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fastpaced and immediate, unpredictable public and affected by the history of learners' and teachers' actions. The teacher (manager) must deal with all these elements every day. Productive classroom activity requires learners' cooperation. Even if some learners do not participate, they must allow others to do so. Gaining learners' cooperation means much more than dealing effectively with misbehaviour. It means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioural and academic demands on learners, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are maintained... Obviously maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young learners are learning how to "go to school" and need to learn the general procedures of school.Making work requirement clear and specific, providing needed materials and monitoring activities all add to engagement.Definition of teaching According to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, teaching is defined as "the process of giving knowledge, instruction or training to someone". Generally speaking, teaching is frequently defined as the process of arranging conditions under which the leaner changes his ways consciously in the direction of his own goals. It is often regarded as an art rather than a science. I. 2. Characteristics of good teaching What makes a good teacher? Is it warmth, humour and the ability to care about people? Is planning, hard work and self-discipline, what about leadership , enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and speaking abilities, most people would agree that all of these qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher. But these qualities are not enough. Expert teachers have elaborate systems knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example when, a beginning teacher is faced with learners' wrong answers on a particular test ( like a history or language test), all the wrong answers may seem about the same - wrong. For expert teachers, however, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include how to recognize several types of wrong answers, the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each mistake, the way to re-teach and correct the misunderstanding.... But what should teachers know that allow them to be successful? Indeed, teachers need to possess a minimum professional knowledge and the ability to ba aware of their own thinking. Consequently, they know: ??Knowledge of the academic subject they teach The old joke which says "Q: What do you need to teach a horse?Indeed, the teachers needs to possess a set of strategies that apply to all subjects; motivating learners, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes and reviewing information must be attended to at all levels, in or out of schools.Several strategies may be applied ( some of them have already been discussed when describing strategies to raise and keep learners motivation) II.3.a. Engaging learners: The format of the class affects learner involvement.A constructivist view of teaching Brown and Mc Inryre (1992; cited in Williams and Burden, 2000) report a study of the opinions of 75 learners in a comprehensive school in the UK, aged 12-13 years as to what made a good teacher.Teachers as reflective practitioners If teachers are to be effective in whatever approach they decide to take, they need to act consistently in accordance with their expressed beliefs though this does not frequently occur in any profession (not just the teaching one).These procedures involve descriptions of how materials and assignments be distributed and collected, under what conditions learners can leave the room, how the grades will be determined, etc.How these tasks are accomplished, however, differs widely according to ages of the learners, the objectives of instruction and other factors.In an attempt to improve teachers' self-awareness, many educational theorists advocate for the notion of critical reflection.Indeed, though there are no simple answers to successful teaching, the theoretical principles and research findings (particularly in educational psychology) provide a basis for planning and implementing instruction.However, teaches have to act as independent decision makers and apply these general concepts and principles in relation to their learners and educational objectives.Effective instructors know that the method of instruction used affects learning, so they apply principles drawn from the study of learning, motivation, development and teaching to tailor their approach the situation.A: more than the horse!" makes obvious the first thing a teacher must have is knowledge or skills that the learner does not have. However, although knowledge of the subject matter is necessary, it is not enough. Knowledge of how to transmit information and skills is at least as important as knowledge of the information and the skills themselves. Every one may remember teachers who were brilliant and thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields but who could not teach. For effective teachers, subject matter is not a question of being a "walking encyclopedia".However, although the writers could identify such elements of what they called professional 'craft' knowledge among teachers, they could draw no simple conclusions or generalizations about how this highly complex knowledge could be transformed into guidelines for action.Both the teacher and the learners reshape their ways of understanding, their knowledge structures and the meanings that they attribute to events and ideas as a result of this interactive process.A reflective practitioner is one who subjects his everyday professional practice to ongoing critical reflection and makes clear his own particular world view by means of such consideration.II .2 The Goals of classroom management Classroom management refers to the techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behaviour problem.When the tasks provides continuous cues for the learners about what to do next, involvement will be greater.Jacob Kounin describes areas where successful problem preventers are skilled ?The settings in which learners learn- pairs, small groups, teams, classes, schools, and the community ?Creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom ?An inner exploration of oneself appears rather than a search for the outward characteristics of the perfect teacher appears to be the radical solution.To do so teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain learners' motivation and reinforce positive behaviour.Helping learners with difficulties ??2.3.??

Chapter Tow: Teachers and Teaching
Introduction
Any study of the teacher starts with raising questions like: Who are teachers? Has their background and personality to do with the fate of their profession? Are they trained? How are they trained? Has this training an effect on their abilities and attitudes?
I. Effective Teaching
I. 1. Definition of teaching
According to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, teaching is defined as “the process of giving knowledge, instruction or training to someone”. Generally speaking, teaching is frequently defined as the process of arranging conditions under which the leaner changes his ways consciously in the direction of his own goals. It is often regarded as an art rather than a science.
I. 2. Characteristics of good teaching
What makes a good teacher? Is it warmth, humour and the ability to care about people? Is planning, hard work and self-discipline, what about leadership , enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and speaking abilities, most people would agree that all of these qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher. But these qualities are not enough.
Expert teachers have elaborate systems knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example when, a beginning teacher is faced with learners’ wrong answers on a particular test ( like a history or language test), all the wrong answers may seem about the same – wrong. For expert teachers, however, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include how to recognize several types of wrong answers, the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each mistake, the way to re-teach and correct the misunderstanding…. But what should teachers know that allow them to be successful? Indeed, teachers need to possess a minimum professional knowledge and the ability to ba aware of their own thinking. Consequently, they know:
Knowledge of the academic subject they teach
The old joke which says “Q: What do you need to teach a horse? A: more than the horse!” makes obvious the first thing a teacher must have is knowledge or skills that the learner does not have. However, although knowledge of the subject matter is necessary, it is not enough. Knowledge of how to transmit information and skills is at least as important as knowledge of the information and the skills themselves. Every one may remember teachers who were brilliant and thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields but who could not teach. For effective teachers, subject matter is not a question of being a “walking encyclopedia”. Effective teachers not only know their subjects, but they can also transmit their knowledge to learners.
Mastering the teaching skills
The link between what the teacher wants learners to learn and learners’ actual learning is called instruction or pedagogy. Effective instruction is not a simple matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting that knowledge to another. Rather, effective instruction demands the use of many strategies. Indeed, the teachers needs to possess a set of strategies that apply to all subjects; motivating learners, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes and reviewing information must be attended to at all levels, in or out of schools. They apply as much to the training of astronauts as to the teaching of reading. How these tasks are accomplished, however, differs widely according to ages of the learners, the objectives of instruction and other factors.
In addition to the above important elements of effective teaching, systematic research has identified further areas of professional knowledge. In fact, effective or ‘good’ teachers also know:
 The curriculum materials and programmes appropriate for their subject and grade level
 Subject-specific knowledge for teaching special ways of teaching certain learners and particular concepts, such as the best way to explain negative numbers to low ability learners in mathematics.
 The characteristics and cultural backgrounds of learners
 The settings in which learners learn- pairs, small groups, teams, classes, schools, and the community
 The goals and the purposes of teaching
I. 3. A constructivist view of teaching
Brown and Mc Inryre (1992; cited in Williams and Burden, 2000) report a study of the opinions of 75 learners in a comprehensive school in the UK, aged 12-13 years as to what made a good teacher. Then categories as representing elements of good teaching:
 Creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom
 Retaining control in the classroom
 Presenting work in an interesting and motivating way
 Providing conditions so learners understand the work
 Making clear what learners are to do and achieve
 Judging what can be expected of a learner
 Helping learners with difficulties
 Encouraging learners to raise their expectations of themselves
 Developing personal, mature relationships with pupils Demonstrating personal talent or knowledge.
However, although the writers could identify such elements of what they called professional ‘craft’ knowledge among teachers, they could draw no simple conclusions or generalizations about how this highly complex knowledge could be transformed into guidelines for action. As a matter of fact, teachers come in all shapes and sizes, with a wide range of personalities, beliefs and ways of working,. They also come from different backgrounds and belong to different cultures. It would be logical to expect them to work in different ways that suit their personalities.
As a result, it seems fruitless to attempt to shape oneself into the model of a good teacher. An inner exploration of oneself appears rather than a search for the outward characteristics of the perfect teacher appears to be the radical solution. Such a vision of teaching is provided by the constructivist approach to teaching.
In a constructivist perspective, teaching is not seen as the passing of a parcel of objective knowledge, but as an attempt to share what the teacher himself finds meaningful. The differences between teachers, therefore, are not simply a question of whether they are good or bad, competent or incompetent because every teacher is unique. Teachers do not just act as gateways for knowledge; they represent and even embody the curriculum. They convey not just what they know but their position towards it. At the same time, teachers experience engagement with their learners out of which further constructions emerge. Both the teacher and the learners reshape their ways of understanding, their knowledge structures and the meanings that they attribute to events and ideas as a result of this interactive process. They also continually reconstruct their views of each other.
I. 4. Teachers as reflective practitioners
If teachers are to be effective in whatever approach they decide to take, they need to act consistently in accordance with their expressed beliefs though this does not frequently occur in any profession (not just the teaching one). In an attempt to improve teachers’ self-awareness, many educational theorists advocate for the notion of critical reflection. The intention is to enable teachers to become reflective practitioners. A reflective practitioner is one who subjects his everyday professional practice to ongoing critical reflection and makes clear his own particular world view by means of such consideration.
Reflective teachers are thoughtful and inventive. They think back over situations to analyse what they did and why and to consider how they might improve learning for their learners. Critical reflection can be fostered by asking a number of guiding questions:
 What do my practices say about my assumptions, values and beliefs about teaching,
 Where did these ideas come from,
 What social practices are exposed in these ideas,
 What views of power do they embody,
 Whose interest seems to be served by my practices,
 What is that acts to constrain my views of what is possible in teaching,
I. 5. Teachers as decision makers
The common belief today is that there is no formula for good teaching. Teaching involves planning and preparation and then dozens of decisions every hour. Indeed, though there are no simple answers to successful teaching, the theoretical principles and research findings (particularly in educational psychology) provide a basis for planning and implementing instruction. However, teaches have to act as independent decision makers and apply these general concepts and principles in relation to their learners and educational objectives.
Effective instructors know that the method of instruction used affects learning, so they apply principles drawn from the study of learning, motivation, development and teaching to tailor their approach the situation. Planning is probably the first step in decision taking. A teaching plan is a guide of action, a set of decisions, and a small theory about how to produce learning. Another example of decision making is the one about teaching strategies. Very often teachers need to make decisions with minimal knowledge (“will my students integrate ideas better if I require them to prepare for a formal exam or if I assign a take-home exam on this new topic that I am teaching for the first time,”).
However, teachers do not always make decisions independently. Many decisions are influenced by the behaviour of previous teachers or parents, learners’ peers, and school policies. Some instructional decisions are not made in a conscious, deliberate way, often because teachers simply do not see a problem. One teacher may see a learner as a pleasant, capable, hard working whereas another teacher may realise that this learner is anxious and excessively dependent on teachers, performing capably because he or she is a compulsive worker and socially withdrawn, seldom engaging with peers. If teachers are unaware of such problems, the decisions they will have to handle about that learner will be less than optimal.
II. Classroom management
One of the main tasks of a teacher is how to create social and physical environments for learning; classroom management, then, is a crucial concern to any teacher who seeks to achieve effective teaching. The very nature of classes, teaching and learners makes good management a critical ingredient for success. But is classroom management easily achived? What are the special managerial demands of classes and the needs of learners of different ages?
II. 1. The need for organisation
Classrooms are by nature multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fastpaced and immediate, unpredictable public and affected by the history of learners’ and teachers’ actions. The teacher (manager) must deal with all these elements every day.
Productive classroom activity requires learners’ cooperation. Even if some learners do not participate, they must allow others to do so. Gaining learners’ cooperation means much more than dealing effectively with misbehaviour. It means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioural and academic demands on learners, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are maintained…
Obviously maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young learners are learning how to “go to school” and need to learn the general procedures of school. Others need to know the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of adolescent peer group.
II .2 The Goals of classroom management
Classroom management refers to the techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behaviour problem. The aim of classroom management is to maintain positive, productive learning environment. There are at least three main reasons for working hard to manage classrooms:

1. More time for learning: Many minutes of the class time are lost each day through interruptions, disruptions, late starts, and rough transitions. Thus one important goal of classroom management is to expand the sheer number of minutes available on learning. This sometimes called allocated time. However, simply making more time for learning will not automatically lead to achievement. To be valuable, time must be used effectively. Basically, learners learn more what they practise and think about. Time spent actively involved in specific learning tasks is often called engaged time, or sometimes time on task. Still, engaged time does not guarantee learning. Learners might be struggling with material that is too difficult or using the wrong learning strategies. When they are working with a high rate of success – really learning and understanding- we call the time spent academic learning time.


2. Access to learning: A second goal of class management is to increase academic learning time by keeping learners actively engaged in worthwhile, appropriate learning activities. In order to participate successfully in a given activity, learners must understand the participation structure- the rules defining who can talk, what they can talk about and when, to whom, and how long they can talk. To reach the second goal of classroom management – giving all learners access to learning- the teacher must make sure that every one knows how to participate in class activity. The key is awareness.


3. Encourage self-management, self-control and responsibility by explaining the procedures that describe how activities are to be accomplished in classrooms, though they are seldom written. These procedures involve descriptions of how materials and assignments be distributed and collected, under what conditions learners can leave the room, how the grades will be determined, etc. in addition to procedures, there are rules that specify expected and forbidden actions in the class. the rules
   II .3. Maintaining a good environment for learning
   Effective teachers maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping learners engaged in productive learning activities. How do they achieve this?
   Several strategies may be applied ( some of them have already been discussed when describing strategies to raise and keep learners motivation)
   II.3.a. Engaging learners:
   The format of the class affects learner involvement. In general, as teacher supervision increases, learners’ engaged time also increases. When the tasks provides continuous cues for the learners about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activites with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing because one stp leads naturally to the next. Making work requirement clear and specific, providing needed materials and monitoring activities all add to engagement.
   II.3.b. Preventing misbehaviour
   The ideal way to manage problems is to prevent them in the first place. To do so teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain learners’ motivation and reinforce positive behaviour. Jacob Kounin describes areas where successful problem preventers are skilled
    Withiness: The teacher must communicate to learners that he is aware of everything that is happening in the classroom, that he is not missing anything. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed or interacting with only a few learners because this encourages the class to wander. They are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual learners so that the latter would know they are being monitored.
    Overlapping: Keeping track and supervising several activities at the same time
    Maintaining group focus: Keeping as many learners as possible involved in appropriate class activities and avoid narrowing in on just one or two learners.
    Movement management: Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate ( and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.
   II.3.c. Dealing with discipline problems
   Being an effective teacher does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the rules. Researchers have identified seven levels of intervention in misbehaviour
    make eye contact with, or move closer, to the offender
    try verbal hints such as “name dropping” ( simply insert the learner’s name into the lecture)
    ask the learner if he is aware of the negative effect of the actions
    if they are not performing a class activity, remind him of the procedure and have him follow it correctly.
    In a calm, unhostile way, ask the learner to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it
    Tell the learner in a clear assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehaviour
    Offer a choice – stop the behaviour or meet privately to work out the conse