Lakhasly

Geology and astrobiology research underpins many of the primary
scientific goals of current robotic missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids
[1–5]. Although human spaceflight has been confined to low
Earth orbit since the Apollo programme, recent plans to return humans
to the surface of the Moon through the Artemis programme means that
in the near future astronauts will be involved in the definition, planning
and execution of missions with geological or astrobiological objectives
[6]. Lunar exploration will pave the way for human missions to Mars,
meaning the long-term future of science conducted during human
spaceflight will continue to involve geology and astrobiology.
Compared to the last five decades of human exploration (the Apollo
programme ended in 1972), which were limited to spacecraft or artificial
orbital habitats (Skylab, MIR, ISS), missions to the Moon and Mars
will mark a shift in the activities astronauts will perform in space. Astronauts
will once again be required to function as field scientists
exploring unknown planetary surface environments. This will involve
examining the surrounding environment to identify scientifically interesting
locations using handheld instrumentation and camera systems to
gather information, working reflexively with ground-based operations
and science teams to select samples and modify traverse plans as new
information is gathered (applying flexible execution or “flexecution” as
in Hodges and Schmitt, 2011), and collecting samples with specifically
designed tools.
In this scenario, it is important to correctly balance the relationship
between ground control and crew. Following the MIR-ISS experience
astronauts and support teams have generally considered best practice to
plan astronaut activities being heavily directed from ground control. In a
true exploration scenario, this approach undervalues the significantly
enhanced situational awareness an astronaut has compared to ground,
which is critical to making rapid quality scientific decisions. Given the
preciousness of EVA time, astronauts should therefore be generally in
charge of exploration-driven decisions, with assistance from ground
only when needed (see Section 2 regarding the Apollo J mission experience).
This philosophy will become more important in scenarios with
increased communication delays, such as in some Moon satellite relay
configurations or on Mars.
Utilising human explorers instead of robotic platforms to complete
these exploration tasks brings many benefits, such as faster data gathering
and rapid real time adaptability to new information, thereby
facilitating more efficient and effective operations and increasing the
chance of novel discoveries. However, for astronauts to be effective field
scientists, significant preparation is required.
The need for geological field training for astronauts was recognised
at the beginning of the Apollo missions [7,8]. At that time, each crew
participated to between 16 and 19 field trips, with 250–300 h of classroom
time and instruction in order to prepare for the geological tasks of
each mission [9]. This training was seen as fundamental to the scientific
success of the Apollo missions, and the crews recognised that “No substitute
exists for working in the field to learn the principles of field
observation and sampling” [10]. As the focus on space exploration
changed during the space shuttle and ISS eras, this field science training
was significantly reduced, although astronauts were, and still are,
involved in science training related to specific payloads.
Today, some astronauts have scientific backgrounds, although only a
very small number have field science experience. Harrison Schmitt, the
only formally trained geologist to take part in the Apollo missions, has
strongly suggested to include professionals with significant experience
in field research and exploration in future astronaut classes [10]. Despite
this, today few astronauts have geology, biology or similar environmental
science degrees, and fewer still have significant field geology
expertise. As astronauts are chosen from a variety of backgrounds, both
scientific and non-scientific, there is a good reason to broadly enhance
astronaut skills with those akin to an experienced terrestrial field scientist
and explorer.