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In 1975 at Simmons College in the US, Margaret Henning and Anne Jardim founded the first women only MBA program in the world, designed to help women succeed as leaders and managers.Other unique aspects of this MBA curriculum were a required course on gender and negotiations, and an elective aiming to empower the women MBA's with the knowledge of particular challenges they might face as women moving into organizational cultures based on male norms.Their research based curriculum was developed from their pioneering work on managerial women, (Henning and Jardim, 1977), which documented the behavioural issues that women face entering male dominated business organizations.As Harvard alumni, they also recognized that women's voices were silenced in a co-educational classroom and that topics of concern to women were not
addressed.In 1995 Vinnicombe and Colwill argued that women only training was needed because there were issues in the workplace that primarily concerned women at work and were best addressed in a women only group.Subsequent writing by the authors focussed specifically on the need to offer a women only elective in an MBA programme.Thus they recognized the importance of a single sex environment that produced a more relevant and supportive environment that enabled women to receive an excellent management education.There is a developing case evident in the management literature to support the emphasis on women only training programmes.These issues were organisational power and politics, sexuality, sex differences in working styles, stress and the nature of career development.


النص الأصلي

In 1975 at Simmons College in the US, Margaret Henning and Anne Jardim founded the first women only MBA program in the world, designed to help women succeed as leaders and managers. Their research based curriculum was developed from their pioneering work on managerial women, (Henning and Jardim, 1977), which documented the behavioural issues that women face entering male dominated business organizations. As Harvard alumni, they also recognized that women’s voices were silenced in a co-educational classroom and that topics of concern to women were not
addressed. Thus they recognized the importance of a single sex environment that produced a more relevant and supportive environment that enabled women to receive an excellent management education. Other unique aspects of this MBA curriculum were a required course on gender and negotiations, and an elective aiming to empower the women MBA's with the knowledge of particular challenges they might face as women moving into organizational cultures based on male norms.
There is a developing case evident in the management literature to support the emphasis on women only training programmes. In 1995 Vinnicombe and Colwill argued that women only training was needed because there were issues in the workplace that primarily concerned women at work and were best addressed in a women only group. These issues were organisational power and politics, sexuality, sex differences in working styles, stress and the nature of career development. Subsequent writing by the authors focussed specifically on the need to offer a women only elective in an MBA programme. Sinclair’s (1995, 1997) research, in which she describes the MBA as based on a ‘masculinised set of practices’ which reinforce male dominance, was particularly
The case for women only programmes
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influential in the design of the elective ‘Developing Tomorrow’s Women Business Leaders’, offered to women students on the Cranfield MBA. Sinclair’s interviews with MBA female students in the UK, USA and Australia indicated that women often prefer to learn in ways which are different from the traditional MBA. Sinclair identified four sources of tension for the female students. These were the centralisation of authority and power in the classroom, a culture of not admitting to uncertainty, learning by looking outwards at best practices rather than inwards at personal experiences and lastly an emphasis on mastering analytical techniques rather than knowing through intuition and emotional connections. The Cranfield elective was aimed at the women MBA students. Participants worked through the social psychological issues facing women managers at work. The objectives of the elective were:
– To clarify their attitudes and feelings in relation to their work roles and personal roles
– To review their experiences of managerial life and the specific issues they faced as women
– To examine their managerial styles in order to promote their personal strengths
– To study the concept of power and politics in order to engage these concepts
effectively
– To help them to be more proactive in their careers
– To satisfy these goals in a safe environment with other women
Vinnicombe and Singh (2003) developed Sinclair’s work further. Alongside acknowledging women’s different ways of knowing and learning they recognised that women often had very different experiences at work compared to men. The gender demography of most organizations mean that women are usually in the minority and
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may even be in token positions. They are paid less than men and tend to be in the lower paid sectors. Where they are in senior positions they are often in support functions. In addition many of the women carry a heavy burden of family and domestic responsibilities. Not surprisingly such experiences often shape women’s ‘values differently to men’s’ in their path to leadership. Women only programmes provided women with the opportunity of reflecting and reinterpreting their managerial experiences exclusively with other women. In so doing women can celebrate their differences rather than being defensive about them
Thirteen years spent charting women’s advance (or rather lack of) on the UK’s top corporate boards by the Cranfield International Centre for Women Leaders underlines the need for women only leadership development. It appeared that the situation facing the still low numbers of women on MBA programmes had worsened. In their UK based study, Kelan and Dunkley Jones (2010) found evidence of a denial of gender discrimination and a need to do business ‘like a man’. Whereas years earlier female MBA students appreciated a Woman in Management elective, now they shunned it. Women were trying to turn a blind eye to their own experiences of gender discrimination. At the same time the Cranfield Women as Leaders open involvement programme continued to flourish.
Hence the conundrum; women are overwhelmingly positive after participating in a women’s only programme, yet many (particularly) young women shun such programmes for fear of being stigmatised by male colleagues.
The remainder of this chapter focuses on women’s leadership programmes designed for senior women with the ambition of taking up an executive role. Any women’s leadership development must take into account both the sex related
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differences found in relationship to leadership and the gender dynamics which shape most organisational cultures. According to Hopkins, O’Neil, Passareli and Bilimoria (2008), existing empirical research highlight three sex related differences. First, men and women tend to have different leadership styles. Women express a more participative style and a less directive style than men do. In teamwork men project a more self-assertive style and show less deference and warmth than do women. Women tend to have a more transformational leadership style. Second, men and women differ in leadership behaviours. Women managers consistently score higher on teamwork, empowerment, sharing information and caring for employees. They are also more emotionally self-aware, show more empathy and have more interpersonal skills. Men are generally more self-confident, optimistic, adaptable and able to handle stress. Thirdly, in terms of leadership evaluation, whilst men and women do not differ overall in terms of effectiveness, men are favoured over women where the context is male dominated, when a high percentage of the subordinates are male or where the role is seen as more suited to a male. (See especially Schein’s research on ‘think manager, think male’ (Schein and Davidson 1993), and Eagly and Carli, 2007).
Such gender differences in leadership infuse organisational dynamics. Organisations’ formal structures, processes and practices skew towards masculine behaviours and men’s life assumptions, since men dominate at managerial and executive levels. Whereas a career tends to be central to most men, for women it is finely balanced between work and life. As such many women move through various career stages, each with its own distinctive challenges (O’Neil and Bilimoria, 2005). This is often interpreted as women not being committed to their careers. The conflicting expectations facing women in ‘masculine’ professions such as management, and the
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importance of managing these expectations wisely shape the leadership opportunities offered to women and the ways they respond to them.
Debebe (2011) indicates that women often end up resisting leadership; they avoid senior roles, they struggle to make changes in their organisations to be more consistent with their values or/and they experience internal conflict. The latter can be both cognitively and emotionally draining. As Debebe concludes, ‘changing one’s current way of navigating gender is far more profound than learning the techniques and skills. It involved identity reconstruction in consonance with personal values coupled with the task of understanding the context’ (Debebe, 2011, p683).
Ely, Ibarra and Kolb (2011) in their recent article, ‘Taking Gender into Account: Theory and Design for Women’s Leadership Development Programmes,’ explain that the main cause of women’s absence in leadership is due to ‘second-generation forms of gender bias’. These may be invisible and arise from beliefs, processes and behaviours that favour men. In Europe the phenomenon is popularly known as ‘unconscious bias’, (Kandola, 2009 ). Ely et al claim that ‘practitioners and educators lack a coherent, theoretically based, and actionable framework for designing and delivering leadership programmes for women’, (Ely et al, 2011, p475). They go on to propose a framework ‘showing how gender shapes women’s path to leadership without either victimising or blaming women, while at the same time cultivating in women a sense of agency’. (Ibid, p475). When women are not seen as the problem the focus of change shifts to the organization and management’s responsibility in the change process, enabling women to accept that they are not deficient in some way. What follows is an analysis of the evolution of the design and delivery of customized women’s leadership programmes at
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Cranfield and Simmons over the past twenty-five years, reflecting some of the changes documented in this literature review.
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In 1986 Cranfield launched the first major women’s management development programme in the UK. The initiative was run for British Telecommunications who at the time was the biggest private employer of women in the UK. Their Chairman was pressured into taking action to increase the number of women in management by the Government. It was felt that if it worked the initiative would be a role model for other organisations. After analysing the profile of women in British Telecommunications it was agreed that the programme should target women at junior management level as this was the level where many women disappeared from the organisation. This level encompassed a wide variety of women aged from early twenties to fifties from across the organisation.
The programme was sponsored by the training department and centrally funded. It ran three times each year for two x one week modules, run six weeks apart. The programme was defined as a personal development programme with a focus on the individuals. The programme was residential and always located at a carefully chosen spa hotel; the aim being that participants balance classroom sessions with time to exercise and relax. In terms of design 80% of the input was delivered in the classroom in the large group (each consisting of 20-24 women) and 20% in small personal development groups, each facilitated by a tutor. The themes addressed were self- awareness, managerial style, politics, and work life balance and career development.
The Cranfield Experience
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The programme in essence was a stand-alone event, run very much at arm’s length from the organisation. Their only presence on the programme was an initial introduction from the Training Director and a senior female Director speaking at the programme dinner on the final evening. No feedback was ever given either to participants’ line managers or to the training department.
Three years after the start of the programme an independent evaluation exercise took place to gauge the impact of the programme. The exercise involved a survey of participants, their partners, line managers and their subordinates at the time of their attendance on the programme. There was an 82% response rate. Overwhelmingly the results reflected the high impact of the programme, both as self-reported by participants and as reported by their partners, line managers and subordinates, with 64% line managers and 46% partners asserting that ‘The programme had made a profound impact on [the participant] as evidenced by lasting behavioural changes.’ The three areas of greatest impact according to the participants themselves, their partners and line managers were personal development, career planning and managerial effectiveness.
In terms of what had happened to the participants; 34% had taken a sideways move in the organisation, 32% had been promoted, 17% were still in the same work role, 10% had left and 7% had applied for promotion but not achieved it so far. The first cohort of women returned to B.T. after the programme to establish a women’s network which gained national recognition. The programmes continued to run for thirteen years at Cranfield and became the longest running customised programme.
At
The next stage
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In contrast the Ernst and Young women’s leadership programme was launched in 2008 and runs three/four times each year, with two hundred and fifty women having participated to date. The programme was driven by a specific business need to increase the number of women partners in the company and retain talented senior women. It started as a UK and Ireland programme and moved in year two to covering ninety two countries across Europe, Africa, the Middle East and India. The programme is jointly sponsored by the Directors of Talent and Diversity. Ernst and Young position the programme as part of a strategic initiative on Diversity and Inclusion.
The programme is specifically targeted at high potential women one to three years away from partnership. They are very carefully selected and sponsored by their line partners. The length and design of the programme is completely different to the one run for British Telecommunications. This is a residential two and a half days at Cranfield, in which 70% of the time is spent in small coaching groups and 30% is spent in the classroom, in the large group (usually twenty five participants). The event commences with a networking dinner opened by a senior partner who sets out why the programme is important to the company as a business driver, rather than a ‘nice to have’. This embeds the programme from the start as a business led initiative. Prior to the programme participants are required to read two Harvard Business Review articles; one positing that the explanation for the lack of women in leadership is womens’ lack of ambition, while the second article’s explanation is the gendered structures, processes and practices that obstruct womens’ careers.
The pattern of each half day is to take a subject (eg challenges facing women, career development and leadership style) and explore it in plenary before breaking into five groups to understand how it relates to each of the participants individually. The
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final half day is run jointly by the Cranfield programme Director and Director of Diversity at Ernst and Young who address how the participants can help advance their careers and the infrastructure in Ernst and Young which supports them. The Director of Diversity is present throughout the two and a half days in order to provide one-to-one help and advice to participants. Again, this design endorses how the programme is embedded in the company. It is positioned explicitly as a company talent management programme, not as a personal development programme for individuals.
Following Ibarra’s work on the importance of role models to individuals who aspire to new roles (Ibarra, 1999), on the second evening three female partners are invited to present their stories of how they made partner. The women are specifically chosen to illustrate differences eg by age, family responsibilities, and ease of achieving partner (either internal progression or from outside the firm). The participants are encouraged to challenge the three partners and to draw out personal learning from them.
The prominent role of coaching in the Ernst and Young programme is reflected in the programme design (30% classroom: 70% coaching groups) and supports the aim of having a deep impact on the individual. At the end of the formal programme individual participants have two further one-to-one coaching sessions of around one hour with their coach. The importance of coaching is in building participants leadership self-efficacy, i.e. ‘their beliefs in their perceived capabilities to organise their positive psychological capabilities, motivation, means, collective resources, and courses of action required to attain effective, sustainable performance across their various leadership roles, demands and contexts’ (Bandura?). We argue that coaching, like mentoring, provides invaluable psycho-social support to the participants. The coach and other members of the group help to excite, inspire and motivate the individual into
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progressing their leadership development. The positive psychological models used by the coaches encourage this process. What distinguishes Cranfield’s approach to women’s leadership development from other business schools is our focus on the participants’ own experiences. We never use case studies of other women leaders as we believe this distracts participants from focussing on themselves.
In terms of impact the percentage of women partners in the UK and Ireland (where the programme began) has increased from 14% to 18%. There is a target across Europe of 25%. There is strong anecdotal evidence that the programme has increased the retention of senior women and increased participants’ engagement in Ernst and Young. At the end of each programme the five coaches get together to distil out the issues from their groups and these are then fed back to Ernst and Young management and carefully discussed, disseminated more widely and acted upon. This quote from the Director of Talent and organizational change sums up the programme.
‘Working with Susan Vinnicombe and the team of coaches has been a true collaboration on a journey where change at a personal level for participants is intertwined with systemic change for Ernst and Young. We have worked together as one team to evoke insight and responsibility within our female future partner group and connect them across our global organization. The program design is dynamic and evolves according to the learning which we harvest and review from each event. This learning is fed back into Ernst and Young where it is shared with leadership and influences our wider inclusive leadership strategy. What was originally conceived as a UK-only intervention has grown into a flagship program across our EMEIA Area.’ Julia Jameson, Ernst and Young Director of Talent and organizational Change EMEIA
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