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This document outlines key aspects of health, safety, and environment management across several chapters, focusing on process equipment operations, emergency response, human factors in safety, accident investigation, and environmental protection.

CHAPTER 5: START-UP AND SHUTDOWN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

This chapter focuses on the safe start-up and shutdown of process equipment, which is designed for specific, single purposes such as storage, reactions, flow control, steam production, and heat exchange, commonly found in refineries, chemical plants, and heavy industries. While most safety concerns are addressed during the design phase and through various equipment mountings, and issues like toxicity, reactivity, corrosion, hazmat threats, fire, and explosions were covered previously, this chapter specifically addresses operational safety during start-up and shutdown. A pre-startup safety review is crucial for new or modified equipment.

5.2 START-UP OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT General start-up procedures for equipment like boilers, pressure vessels, storage tanks, and heat exchangers include:

• Powering on components such as burners, pilots, preheaters, compressors, and cooling towers, as applicable.
• Verifying all valves (flow, pressure, direction control) are properly seated.
• Checking the functionality of safety mountings.
• Slowly charging the system to reach rated operating parameters (e.g., pressure, temperature).
• Ensuring smooth operation of all automatic controls.

For boilers specifically, start-up involves:

• Powering the burner, proving pilot and main flames.
• Confirming the boiler vent and drain between main stop valve(s) and non-return valve are open.
• Opening the equalizing valve around main steam-stop valves, if installed.
• Opening the main steam-stop valve.

5.3 SHUT-DOWN OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT Proper shutdown is vital to prevent damage and breakdowns. Abrupt closures or drainage of equipment operating at elevated temperatures and pressures can cause distortion, affect dimensional stability, and lead to crack formations due to residual heat. This is particularly true for fractional distillation columns, boilers, furnaces, and heat exchangers. A safe shutdown process is crucial for equipment durability and preventing future failures, though there isn't a singular universal method as it varies by function and design. General sequential shutdown operations include:

• Gradually reducing temperature to ambient conditions.
• Closing the fuel supply after operating parameters are lowered.
• Shutting down accessories that enhance process efficiencies first.
• Shutting down feed systems.
• Avoiding hot drainage, as it can cause warpage, distortions, and leaks in internal parts like tubes and shells.

For boilers, shutdown involves:

• Shutting off fuel to the burner.
• Opening the superheater outlet drain valve, if equipped.
• Closing the main steam stop valve(s) and opening all drains.
• Shutting down the boiler feed system.

SUMMARY (Chapter 5) Ultimately, start-up and shutdown processes must follow manufacturer guidelines and prevailing standards to ensure safe, reliable, and efficient operation, maintenance, and repairs. Developing checklists for these operations is recommended.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS (Chapter 5) Students are asked to research and present information on process equipment start-up and shutdown.

ASSESSMENTS (Chapter 5) Quizzes, short tests, and reports on topics like start-up/shutdown operations and OSHA standards. Exercises include multiple-choice questions on process equipment examples, pre-startup reviews, and theoretical questions on pre-startup safety reviews and boiler start-up operations.

CHAPTER 6: FIRST AID AND HANDLING EMERGENCIES

This chapter emphasizes the importance of correct actions during industrial emergencies for safety, particularly in hazardous industries like petroleum, chemical, and manufacturing. It covers emergency procedures, first aid, and laboratory/workshop safety.

6.2 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE Emergencies pose various hazards. Employers and contractors must understand appropriate responses to ensure safety. Preparedness and response strategies depend on the type of emergency.

6.3 WORKPLACE EMERGENCY A workplace emergency is an unforeseen situation threatening workers, employees, contractors, the public, and other stakeholders, stemming from controllable or uncontrollable causes such as accidents, fire, toxic gas leaks, chemical spills, explosions, radiological incidents, floods, hurricanes, or earthquakes. Preparedness and response actions include:

• Training for worst-case scenarios.
• Developing an emergency action plan.
• Alerting employees about emergencies.
• Creating an evacuation plan and routes.
• Defining roles for safety wardens and coordinators.

A detailed emergency action plan should specify:

• Methods for reporting fires or accidents.
• Emergency escape routes and procedures, including floor plans and refuge areas.
• Names and contact details of coordinators, wardens, and emergency contacts.
• Assignment of special duties for shutdown, emergency response, and fire extinguisher operation.
• Medical duties and designated rescue workers.
• Types of alternative communications.
• Assembly points and public announcement systems. Thorough, continuous training is essential for effective emergency preparedness and response.

6.4 FIRST AID Health and safety managers typically oversee first aid processes and plant nurses. A well-trained, qualified, and experienced first aid person must always be available. First aid is immediate assistance given to an injured or ill person before specialized medical care, aiming to prevent worsening conditions, preserve life, and promote recovery.

Different first aid procedures for various situations:

6.4.1 UNCONSCIOUS/UNRESPONSIVE The ABC principle is adopted:

• Airway: Clear the person's airway (e.g., vomit, fluid) while in the recovery position.
• Breathing: If no response after clearing the airway, provide rescue breathing.
• Circulation: If not breathing, perform chest compressions to aid circulation.

CARDIAC ARREST Perform Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) or use an Automated External Defibrillator (AED), which can be operated by untrained individuals.

BURNS First aid varies by burn type:

• First-Degree Burn: Minor, affecting outer skin (epidermis), causing redness and swelling.
• Second-Degree Burn: Major, causing redness, swelling, and blistering; more painful and severe if large or on critical areas; affects the dermis.
• Third-Degree Burn: Severe, life-threatening, affecting deeper skin layers (hypodermis), appearing blackened or white with numbness.

Initial action for any burn is to stop the burning process (e.g., clean chemical burns, cut off electricity for electrical burns). For first- and second-degree burns:

• Cool the area with running water for an extended period.
• Apply ointment for minor burns.
• Apply a light gauze bandage.
• Do not break blisters. For major burns, seek emergency medical attention. Ibuprofen or acetaminophen can be used for pain relief as advised by a plant nurse. For third-degree burns:
• Do not apply ointment.
• Do not soak with water.
• Do not remove burned clothing stuck to the area.

BROKEN BONES OR FRACTURE All hand and foot injuries are treated as fractures until X-ray confirmation. Medical assistance is needed, but not always an emergency rush. First aid:

• Use a splint to immobilize the part.
• Do not attempt to straighten the bone.
• Apply a cold pack.
• Do not move the person if a spinal injury is suspected.
• Transport to a hospital.

NOSE BLEEDS Caused by factors like nose picking, dry air, forceful nose blowing, high blood pressure, chemical fumes, or high altitudes. First aid:

• Lean forward.
• Pinch the nose just below the bridge; repeat if bleeding doesn't stop.
• Apply a cold pack to the bridge of the nostrils.
• Seek medical assistance if bleeding persists.

BLEEDING Bleeding can occur from capillaries (trickling, stops quickly), veins (dark red, consistent flow), or arteries (bright red, sprouts, significant blood loss). All types of bleeding can be stopped. First aid:

• Wash hands and wear gloves to prevent contagious disease transmission.
• Rinse the wound with water.
• Cover the area with gauze or clean cloth.
• Apply direct pressure for profuse bleeding.
• Elevate the bleeding part above heart level.
• If the cloth is soaked, place another cloth over it; do not remove the original.
• Apply a bandage if bleeding stops; otherwise, seek medical assistance.

SPRAIN Symptoms are similar to a fracture until X-ray confirmed; involves ligament injury (e.g., ankles, wrists). Causes severe pain with movement and inability to bear weight. Not a serious injury; apply cold packs and seek medical assistance.

WASP/BEE STINGS Painful and potentially dangerous for those allergic to venom. First aid:

• Quickly remove the stinger.
• Wash the area with soap, water, and disinfectants.
• Apply ice or a cold pack.
• Plant nurse should administer medication for allergic individuals.

CHOKING Throat blockage by food or particles can lead to unconsciousness or death. Perform the Heimlich maneuver:

• Stand behind the person, make them lean forward.
• Wrap arms around their waist.
• Clench one fist between the rib cage and navel (for right-handed persons).
• Grab the clenched fist with the other hand.
• Push the clenched fist backward and upward under the rib cage in five quick thrusts, repeating until the object is expelled, before medical assistance arrives.

6.4.2 SAFETY IN LABORATORIES AND WORKSHOPS Safety is ensured by following instructions from teachers, supervisors, and technicians. Students must prioritize safety and maintain high discipline, obeying rules even unsupervised.

• Observe signals and visual instructions on campus, including parking areas.
• Wear mandated PPE (e.g., safety shoes, lab coat, coveralls, gloves, aprons) in labs and workshops.
• Never operate untrained machinery.
• In chemistry labs, observe labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
• In electrical workshops, follow electrical safety instructions.
• Wash hands thoroughly after work, before contact with others, and before eating.
• Be aware that grease containing lead is carcinogenic.
• Maintain correct posture in computer labs.
• Drink plenty of water during outdoor tasks in summer to prevent sunstroke.
• Participate seriously in mock safety drills to understand evacuation processes.

SUMMARY (Chapter 6) Providing immediate first aid is critical for injured persons before advanced medical care. First aid equipment must be well-maintained, and a responsible first aid person must always be available, ensuring coverage during their absence. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.151(b) governs general industry first aid methods.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS (Chapter 6) Students should receive practical first aid training, write reports on emergency situations, benefit from professionals from industries/hospitals, and gather information on local industry emergency response and first aid.

ASSESSMENTS (Chapter 6) Quizzes, short tests, and reports on emergency preparedness, first aid, and OSHA standards.

CHAPTER 7: HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY

This chapter explores how human factors influence health and safety excellence, emphasizing the need for continuous improvement and avoiding complacency. Human factors significantly impact industrial performance and the social characteristics of work groups.

7.2 HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY As per H.W. Heinrich's Domino theory, 88% of workplace accidents result from unsafe acts, which stem from human error and behavior.

7.2.1 UNDERSTANDING HUMAN FAILURE Human failure is categorized into two main types:

1. Violations: Deliberate wrong actions.
2. Human Error: Unintended actions or decisions, not deliberate violations. Human errors are further classified:
   • Skill-based errors: Occur even with trained, experienced workers.
     • Slips: Not performing an intended action correctly (e.g., omitting steps, working too fast/slow, incorrect task direction, PPE omission, noting wrong dial value). They occur with familiar tasks due to thoughtlessness, completion fatigue, or interruptions. Prevention methods include checklists, sequential layouts, phone bans, and engineering controls like barcode readers.
     • Lapses: Forgetting to perform an action (e.g., forgetting to wear a mask after talking, switching off equipment, turning off a stove).
   • Mistakes: Failures in decision-making, where incorrect actions are taken based on a belief that they are right. These can be:
     • Rule-based mistakes: Applying the wrong rule or misinterpreting a rule (e.g., wrong overtaking, entering a road on the wrong side). Often happen under time pressure or while multi-tasking, influenced by environmental, social, or individual stress, and equipment problems. Prevented by situational awareness (e.g., rumble strips).
     • Knowledge-based mistakes: Errors arising from insufficient knowledge or understanding. Prevented by effective supervision and instructions.

Violations are deliberate wrong actions (e.g., not wearing seat belts/harnesses, allowing untrained drivers, working without goggles, succumbing to peer pressure, ignoring perceived "strict" rules). They cause many accidents and can be controlled through routine monitoring, supervision, convincing workers of rule importance, creating conducive environments, continuous training, and encouraging problem reporting.

7.3 BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY Behavioral safety aims to prevent unconscious unsafe behaviors developed through habit. Inappropriate behavior contributes significantly to accidents, influenced by attitudes and observations. Safety managers must define safe/unsafe behavior and provide feedback. Managers and peers play a vital role in reinforcing safe behavior.

Behavioral safety training can employ various approaches:

• Systematic and continuous improvement.
• Observations and data collection.
• Worker participation.
• Focus on specific unsafe behaviors.
• Feedback focused on performance.
• Involvement of data-driven decision making.

Key considerations for behavioral safety include:

• Acting only when truly necessary.
• Developing support networks.
• Taking ownership of the work system.
• Listening to employers and peers.
• Piloting processes and only rolling out fully secure and confident systems.
• Not underestimating safety instructions and plans.
• Performing tasks correctly to develop good habits.

SUMMARY (Chapter 7) A positive safety culture is built on healthy communication, strong senior management commitment, high training standards, good working conditions, and a stress-free environment. Behavioral safety offers advantages like reduced accidents, enhanced quality, faster task completion, improved efficiency, better employer-employee relations, stronger teamwork, increased employee engagement, and commitment. However, it requires significant time, additional resources, and dedicated effort and commitment from senior management.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS (Chapter 7) Students analyze behavioral safety case studies and develop improvement plans based on learned concepts.

7.4 ASSESSMENTS (Chapter 7) Quizzes, short tests, and reports on case studies and behavioral safety approaches. Exercises include multiple-choice questions on challenges in health and safety, examples of rule-based mistakes and violations, and theoretical questions on behavioral safety training approaches and descriptions of slips and lapses.

CHAPTER 8: ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS, REPORTING AND RISK ASSESSMENT

This chapter covers the essential processes of reporting, tracking, and investigating accidents and incidents to prevent future occurrences. Accident reports are valuable input for ongoing safety training. Risk assessment is introduced as a method for identifying potential hazards and analyzing their consequences, with the risk assessment observation sheet being an effective management tool.

8.2 ACCIDENT/INCIDENT REPORTING An accident is an unintentional event leading to damage, injury, fatality, or a combination. An incident is an unintentional event that may not result in damage, injury, or fatality. Reporting and recording work-related accidents causing death, serious injuries, industrial diseases, and dangerous occurrences is compulsory. Legally, any accident causing a worker to be absent from work for at least three days must be reported. OSHA standards 1960.29 and 1904.39 cover reporting, while 1960.70 and 1904.7 cover record keeping.

Main aspects for reporting include:

• Identifiable work-related accidents causing injury.
• The injury type falling into a reportable category.
• Type of death, if involved.
• Type of injury sustained.
• Injuries to non-workers.
• Reportable occupational hazards.
• How work was organized.
• Who supervised the work.
• Machinery or equipment used.
• Condition of the accident site.
• Other relevant findings. The "5W&H" rule (What, Why, When, How, Where, and Who) provides an easy reporting guideline. A sample reporting and investigation form is typically included in an appendix.

8.3 RISK ASSESSMENT Understanding risk assessment requires defining:

• Hazard: An act, source, or situation potentially leading to injury, ill health, death, property damage, or a combination (e.g., heavy noise in spinning mills).
• Risk: The combination of an event's probability and the severity of its harmful consequences. Quantified as probability multiplied by severity.
• Chance: A measure of the likelihood of an accident.
• Severity: A measure of the seriousness of injury from an accident.
• Control Measures: Steps taken to eliminate or reduce hazards and risks.

Risk assessment follows three main steps:

1. Identify hazards: Categorize as physical, chemical, health, or human factors.
   • Example: Heavy noise in spinning mills.
2. Assess risks: Classify risks (low, medium, high) based on likelihood, seriousness, and worker exposure frequency.
   • Example: High health risk for an operator, medium risk for a manager.
3. Apply control measures:
   • Aim to eliminate the hazard. If not possible, explore alternate methods or apply precautions to reduce risk effects.
   • Example: Provide earmuffs for the worker and earplugs for the manager entering the area.

8.4 RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX A risk assessment matrix, or risk matrix, evaluates the probability and severity of an expected action. It's a valuable tool for prioritizing actions and attention levels within an industry. A sample matrix typically visualizes these relationships.

8.5 RISK ASSESSMENT OBSERVATION SHEET This sheet is used to assess and measure risk based on its impact, probability, and severity. A sample sheet is usually provided in an appendix.

8.6 ACCIDENT, FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY RATE These rates are calculated as follows:

• Accident Rate = (Total numbers of lost time injury / Average number of employees) x 1000
• Frequency Rate = (Total numbers of lost time injury / Man-hours worked) x 1,000,000
• Severity Rate = (Total man-days lost / Man-hours worked) x 1,000,000
• Incident Rate = (Total man-days lost / Number of incidents reported)

Examples illustrate these calculations:

• Example 1: For 200 employees, 8 hours/day, 26 days/month, 2 LTI: Total man-hours = 41600. Accident Rate = 10 per thousand. Frequency Rate = 48 per million.
• Example 2: 75 man-days lost over a year, 15 reported incidents: Incident Rate = 5 (meaning 5 man-days lost per reported incident).
• Example 3: 50 man-days lost, 500,000 man-hours worked: Severity Rate = 100 (meaning 100 man-days lost per 1,000,000 man-hours worked).

8.6 OTHER RISK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES Quantitative risk assessment techniques for familiarity include:

• HAZOP Analysis (Hazard and Operability Analysis): Assesses equipment hazards and vulnerabilities.
• Job Hazard Analysis (JHA): Identifies hazards in specific jobs or tasks by studying the task, worker, tools, and environment to eliminate threats.
• Event Tree Analysis (ETA): Analyzes processes and events leading to likely accidents.
• Fault Tree Analysis (FTA): A systematic tool for examining and finding hazardous areas for mitigation and prevention.

SUMMARY (Chapter 8) Safety risk assessment is a methodical procedure for identifying, assessing, and preventing hazards through control measures. It involves a detailed examination of processes, equipment, and the work environment to support safety management.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS (Chapter 8) Students are asked to create accident reports using a provided appendix as a reference.

ASSESSMENTS (Chapter 8) Quizzes, short tests, reports on risk assessment, and calculations of accident rate, frequency, and severity. Exercises include multiple-choice questions on hazard, chance, types of analysis, and theoretical questions explaining risk assessment steps and differentiating JHA and FTA.

CHAPTER 9: ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

This chapter focuses on environmental safety as a comprehensive policy ensuring an environment free from hazards, thereby promoting the well-being of employees, the public, and flora and fauna, by preventing harmful releases. HSE managers are responsible not only for employee safety but also for compliance with environmental regulations and standards.

9.7 RESPONSIBILITIES OF HSE MANAGER The HSE manager's key environmental safety responsibilities include:

• Assessing operational risks.
• Conducting job hazard analysis.
• Investigating incidents.
• Ensuring industrial hygiene.
• Ensuring environmental safety compliance.
• Conducting safety observations via worksite walkthroughs.
• Controlling hazardous materials (Hazmat).
• Appointing safety committees.
• Providing HSE training.
• Collecting data on leading and lagging indicators.
• Guiding the industry toward environmental safety qualifications like ISO 14000.

9.8 OMANI STANDARDS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Oman has various laws and Sultani decrees governing environmental safety:

• Omani law on conservation of the environment and prevention of pollution (MD 5/86).
• Omani law on protection of potable water sources from pollution.
• Sultani decree 114/01 on habitat protection through an environmental permit system, requiring MOECA certification for construction.
• Regulations for solid waste management (MD 17/93) and hazardous waste (MD 18/93).
• MD 15/2021 regarding specific waste exports.
• MD 23/2020 banning single-use plastic bags.
• MD 34/1974 controlling marine pollution.

9.9 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT Rapid industrial growth leads to significant waste generation, harming air quality (gases, smoke particulates), and causing soil, aqua, and marine pollution from solid wastes and mixed pollutants.

Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) Environmental rules mandate ETPs for industries to prevent pollutant discharge into water bodies. ETPs are compulsory for sectors like food processing, dairy, textile, paper, and pharmaceuticals. Gas flaring in petroleum, petrochemical, and refinery industries is a major environmental pollutant. ETPs typically comprise storage, equalization, neutralization tanks, primary clarifiers, anaerobic reactors, aeration tanks, final clarifiers, sludge pumps, and sludge drying pumps. The basic ETP processes are depicted in a flow chart.

Table 9.1 Level of effluent Treatment Different ETP levels and their processes:

• Pretreatment or Preliminary Treatment: A physical process removing large solids (rags, grit, grease) using screens and grit chambers.
• Primary Treatment: A physical and chemical process removing settleable, floating, and suspended solids, achieving up to 70% suspended solids removal and 30% Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) reduction. Sludge from the primary clarifier is pumped out for processing.
• Secondary Treatment: A biological and chemical process removing biodegradable organic matter (85% removed) through aerobic processes.
• Tertiary Treatment or Advanced Treatment: Physical, chemical, and biological processes removing residual suspended and dissolved solids, improving water quality through methods like chlorine, ozone, or UV light to remove microorganisms.

Working of Effluent Treatment Plant

1. Wastewater Influent & Preliminary Treatment: Raw wastewater enters, undergoes screening and grit removal to eliminate large solids.
2. Primary Clarifier (Primary Treatment): Heavier suspended solids settle as "primary sludge," and lighter materials like oil/grease are skimmed off. Partially clarified water moves to the next stage.
3. Aeration Tank (Secondary Treatment - Activated Sludge Process): Air is injected to promote "activated sludge" (microorganisms) growth, which consumes organic matter, biologically cleaning the water.
4. Secondary Clarifier (Secondary Treatment): The mixture from the aeration tank separates; activated sludge settles, leaving clearer treated water.
   • Recycle Activated Sludge: Part of the settled sludge is returned to the aeration tank to maintain microbial population.
   • Waste Activated Sludge: Excess sludge is removed for further treatment and disposal.
5. Disinfection (Tertiary Treatment): Treated water is disinfected (e.g., chlorine, UV light) to kill remaining microorganisms before discharge or reuse.
6. Final Effluent: Disinfected water is released into the environment or reused (e.g., irrigation).
7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal: Primary and waste activated sludge are processed (thickening, digestion, dewatering) to reduce volume and stabilize for safe disposal or beneficial reuse (e.g., fertilizer, biogas). A flow chart illustrates the entire process.

9.10 ISO 14000 ISO 14000 is a quality standard that guides industries in reducing their adverse environmental effects. It provides a framework for improving operations and environmental consciousness within quality management systems.

9.11 SUMMARY (Chapter 9) ETPs purify wastewater for reuse and prevent environmental harm by removing contaminants like oil, grease, toxic materials, and pollutants, ensuring safe discharge. ETP design and construction depend on effluent quality, wastewater quantity, land availability, and local regulations. HSE managers are responsible for industrial safety, accident prevention, and environmental safety, all crucial for sustainable development.

9.12 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS (Chapter 9) Students may visit industrial sites to observe safety and ETPs firsthand and write reports.

9.13 ASSESSMENTS (Chapter 9) Quizzes, short tests, and reports based on industrial visits.

CHAPTER 5
5 START-UP AND SHUTDOWN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
Apply the safety regulations and standard operating procedures concerning start up and
shut down operations of process equipment
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Process equipment is designed for specific tasks, mainly a single purpose that are generally
classified as storage, reactors, controlling flow, steam production, heat exchanger etc. that are
generally found in refineries, chemical plants, water and wastewater treatments and many heavy
industries.
Process equipment is instrumental to pose many types of hazards which are discussed in the
earlier sections. Most safety concerns related to process equipment are addressed in the design
stage itself and also through various mountings on it. Moreover, toxicity, reactivity, corrosion,
potential threat from hazmat, fire, explosion, and other process safety management concerns are
addressed in the previous chapters. The focus of this chapter is limited mainly to the start-up and
shut-down operations of process equipment.
Process equipment safety requires a pre-startup safety review especially when it is newly
procured or operating after certain modifications.
Figure 5.1 Firetube Boiler (https://burnerstock.co)
57
EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
5.2 START-UP OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Startup operations of a general type of process equipment (Boiler, pressure vessel, storage,
heat exchanger etc.) are as listed below:
▪ Powering on the burners and pilots, preheaters, compressors, cooling towers etc. as it may
apply for different equipment
▪ Check all the valves and its reseating – flow control valves, pressure control valves,
direction control valves and other types
▪ Check the working of safety mountings
▪ Charge the system slowly to reach the rated operating parameters of pressure, temperature
or any other parameters
▪ Ensure the smooth functioning of all the automatic controls
STARTUP OPERATIONS OF BOILER
• Power the burner switch and prove the pilot and main flames.
• Check to see that the boiler vent and drain between the main stop valve(s) and the non-
return valve are open.
• If installed, open the equalizing valve around the main steam-stop valves.
• Open the main steam-stop valve
5.3 SHUT-DOWN OPERATIONS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Proper shutdown of processed equipment is highly important, if otherwise it may lead to
damage and breakdowns by improper shutdown. Most of the process equipment operates at
elevated temperatures and higher pressures and it is abruptly closed or drained, it may cause
distortion of parts and affects its dimensional stability, and the residual heat may lead to crack
formations on the equipment and many other damages. is true for process equipment like
fractional distillation columns, boilers, furnaces, heat exchangers etc. Considering the durability
of the equipment, the shutdown process is more important in view of equipment safety as it takes
care of safety for future impending failures. There is no specific singular shutdown process for
process equipment in common, as it varies in its function and design parameters. However, a
general sequential shutdown operation is listed below:
▪ Reduce the temperature slowly to bring it down to normal ambient conditions
▪ Close the fuel after its operating parameters are brought down to reduced levels
▪ Close down all the accessories that is for the purpose of process efficiencies first
▪ Shut down the feed systems
▪ When drained in hot conditions, internal parts like tubes, shells and non-structural
elements may be subjected to warpage and distortions and cause leaks
SHUTDOWN OPERATIONS OF BOILER
▪ Shut off the fuel to the burner.
▪ If equipped, open the superheater outlet drain valve.
▪ Close the main steam stop valve(s) and open all drains.
▪ Shut down the boiler feed system
SUMMARY
Above all, the startup and shutdown process must be finally performed as suggested by the
manufacturer and the prevailing standards. To keep the process equipment in operation safe,
reliable and efficient to start up, shut down and carry out the maintenance and repairs in a timely
manner. There is a need to make a checklist for startup and shutdown of process equipment.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS
☞ Ask the students to collect and present information related to startup and shutdown of
process equipment
ASSESSMENTS
Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports as agreed by the departmental assessment plan: Questions
could include but not limited to startup and shutdown of process equipment and OSHA standards.
Exercise:
I. Choose the correct answer (Multiple choice questions):
Q1.The example of Process Equipment
a.Heat Exchanger b.Bicycle c. Automobile d.None
Q2. is performed before the startup of the equipment
a.Product analysis b. Process verification b. Process hazard analysis d.
None
Q3.The type of review while buying a process equipment safety requires a especially when it is
newly procured or operating after certain modifications
a.Shut down review b.Pre-startup safety review c.Slow down review
d.None Q4. Close the boiler vent when the pressure reaches up to psi
a.15 b.20 . c.78 d. None
Answers:
Q1. a Q2. c Q3. b Q4.a
II. THEORETICAL QUESTION

1. Explain the activities involved in Pre-startup safety review of a process equipment.


2. State the four Startup operations in the boiler .
   CHAPTER 6
   FIRST AID AND HANDLING EMERGENCIES
   Course Learning Outcomes
   Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
   Work safely in various laboratories and workshops to Perform emergencies and First
   Aid
   Procedures
   6.1 INTRODUCTION
   Right actions during emergencies is the key to industrial safety in various industries where
   potential hazards and possible accidents are prevalent. This is true in many industries like
   petroleum, petrochemical, refinery, seaports, airports, shipyards, paper manufacturing, mattresses
   manufacturing, paint manufacturing and other hazardous chemical industries. In the subsequent
   sessions, emergency procedures, first aid procedures and safety in laboratories and workshops
   would be discussed.
   6.2 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE
   Emergencies lead to different types of hazards for workers and the area that it is impacted.
   Due to that employers and other workers who are contractors’ staff have to know what the
   appropriate response for could be keeping them and others around safe during such emergencies.
   Emergency response and preparedness depends greatly on the type of emergencies.
   6.3 WORKPLACE EMERGENCY
   A workplace emergency is an unexpected situation that threatens the workers, employees,
   contractors, public, customers and other stakeholders. Emergencies occur due to controllable and
   uncontrollable causes like accidents, fire, toxic gas leakages, chemical spills, explosions,
   radiological accidents, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes etc.
   The following actions are generally found to be in preparedness and response.
   ▪ Provide training to the worst-case situations
   ▪ Prepare the emergency action plan
   ▪ Alert the employees about the emergency
   ▪ Develop an evacuation plan
   ▪ Establish an evacuation route
   ▪ Define the roles of safety wardens and coordinators
   The detailed emergency action plan should consist of the following:
   o Method of reporting fire or any other types of accidents
   o Emergency escape routes and procedures – floor plans, refuge area etc.
   o Names and phone numbers of the coordinators and wardens and emergency contact lists
   o Assigning special duties to persons responsible for shutdown, performing emergency
   duties and operating fire extinguishers
   o Medical duties and designated rescue workers
   o Types of alternative communications
   o Assembly points and public announcement systems
   Detailed training before the inception of the workers to the specific departments and periodic
   continuous training is the key for preparedness and response during emergencies.
   6.4 FIRST AID
   Health and safety managers ore often responsible for supervising the plant nurse and first
   aid process. A well-trained, qualified and adequately experienced first aid person must be made
   available all the time. First aid is the instantaneous assistance that is given to a person
   encountering an injury or illness- minor or major, on the first instance itself before taking him for
   specialized medical care. First aid is administered for mainly three purposes – Prevent worsening
   of the condition, preserve life, and to promote the recovery.
   Different types of first aid process for different situations like unconscious, cardiac arrest,
   burns, broken bones, nosebleeds, wasp/bee stings, sprains, choking, bleeding are detailed as
   below. (Courtesy: www.verywellhealth.com/basic-first-aid-procedures-1298578)
   6.41 UNCONSCIOUS/UNRESPONSIVE
   When a person is found unresponsive or unconscious the basic principle adopted as first
   aid is represented by acronym ABC
   Airway – Clear the airway when someone is unresponsive. Keeping the person in the recovery
   position, clear the vomit or fluid seen.
   Breathing – After clearing the airway, if still no response provide rescue breathing i.e. blowing
   air into the person’s mouth to supply the necessary oxygen
   Circulation – If the person involved fails to breath, he should be given chest compressions as a
   first aid. This will help circulation and save time and life.
   CARDIAC ARREST
   If a person is found in cardiac arrest, performs a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or
   he can be helped by using an automated external defibrillator (AED) that can be operated even
   without a trained person around.
   Figure 6.2 Use of CPR and AED (www.laerdal.com)
   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   BURNS
   First aid for burns depends on the types of burn:
   First Degree Burn: It is minor burns that causes swelling and redness on the skin and is affecting
   the outer layer of the skin. It affects the epidermis of the skin.
   Second Degree Burn: It causes redness, swelling and blistering along with it. It is a major burn
   and is more severe when it happens on hands, joints, face and is more than three inches wide. This
   type of bure is the most painful and affects the dermis of the skin.
   Third Degree Burn: It is a severe burn that affects the deeper layers of the skin and is often seen
   as blackened or white skin and numbness as well and is life threating and affects the hypodermis
   of the skin.
   Figure 6.3Types of burns (www.semanticscholar.com)
   The first action to provide during the burning is to stop the burning process. Chemicals
   need to be cleaned if it is a chemical burn electricity needs to be cut of, if it is an electrical fire
   For the first- and second-degree burn:
   o Cool the burned area with running water for a long time
   o Apply ointment if the burn is a minor one
   o Apply a light gauze bandage
   o Do not break any blisters if formed
   For major burns call for emergency medical attention. For pain relief ibuprofen or acetaminophen
   upon the advice of the plant nurse. In case of third-degree burn, do not apply ointment, do not
   soak the bun with water and do not remove the burned clothing sticking to the area.
   BROKEN BONES OR FRACTURE
   All injuries to hands and feet are considered as fracture or broken bones until otherwise
   confirmed by an X ray and the person affected need to be taken for medical assistance, however
   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   it does not require an emergency rush to hospital. The first aid in such situations is as below:
   Use a splint to keep the part still
   Do not try to straighten the bone
   Put a cold pack over the injured part
   The person should not be allowed to move, if spinal injury is suspected
   Transport to the hospital for medical assistance.
   NOSE BLEEDS
   The causes for nose bleeds are nose picking, hot air, blowing the nose hard, high blood
   pressure, chemical fumes, high altitudes etc. The first aid in such situations is as below:
   Lean forward
   Pinch the nose just below the bridge and check after some time whether bleeding is stopped or else
   repeat the same
   Apply a cold pack on the bridge of the nostrils
   If not, stopping take the person for medical assistance
   BLEEDING
   Bleeding might occur from capillaries, veins and arteries. Bleeding from capillaries stops
   soon and is often trickling only, from the veins it will be dark red blood that flows consistently
   and from the arteries, it would be bright red and sprouts out and large quantity of blood may be
   lost.
   All types of bleeding can be stopped and first aid in such situations are as below:
   Wash and use gloves to get protected from contagious diseases like HIV, Hepatitis B etc.
   Rinse the wound with good water
   Cover the area by using gauze of good cloth
   Apply direct pressure is bleeding profusely which might help stopping the loss of blood
   Keep the part that is bleeding above the heart level
   If the cloth is soaked with blood, use another cloth over it, do not remove the cloth
   If bleeding stops, apply bandage or else take the person for medical assistance
   SPRAIN
   Symptoms of sprain is similar to that of a fracture unless otherwise confirmed by an X-
   ray. It is generally an injury on the ligaments of the ankles or wrists. A person who has sprain would
   experience severe pain when he is trying to move, unable to bear the weight. It is not a serious
   injury that can apply cold packs and go for medical assistance.
   WASP/BEE STINGS
   Wasp or bee stings are painful and can be dangerous for those allergic to bee venom. The
   first aid in such situations are as below:
   Try to remove the stringer quickly
   Wash the area with soap, water and disinfectants
   Apply ice or cold pack
   The plant nurse must administer some medication to those who are allergic to bee stingsCHOCKING
   Blockage of the throat by food or any other particle entrapment is chocking which might
   lead to unconsciousness or to death. The first aid in such situations is performing a Heimlich
   maneuver, and the process is as below:
   Make the person lean forward by standing behind and pressing him
   Put your arms around the waist of the person
   Clench your left fist and keep it between the rib cage and navel (For right-handed persons)
   Grab the clenched fist with the other hand
   Push the clenched fist in backward and upward direction under the rib cage in five quick thrusts
   and repeat this cycle till the object is coming out. This procedure can be done before the medical
   assistance arrives
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   6.42 SAFETY IN LABORATORIES AND WORKSHOPS
   Safety in laboratories and workshops can be easily ensured by always following the
   instructions of the teachers, supervisors and technicians. Students need to clearly understand the
   priority of safety and must be highly disciplined. Discipline is when you are proud in following
   the rules even when no one is watching you.
   o Right from the parking place as you enter the university campus, watch for the signals and
   visual instructions.
   o Put your PPE as mandated by the laboratories and workshop.
   o In workshops safety shoes, lab coat, coveralls are compulsory and gloves, aprons and
   other as it is provided.
   o Never try to operate a machine if not trained
   o In chemistry labs watch for the labels and material safety data sheets
   o In electrical workshops follow the instructions for electrical safety
   o Wash your hands thoroughly after work and before contacting others and eating food
   o Grease which contains lead is carcinogens
   o Sit in the correct posture while working in computer labs
   o While doing outdoor tasks like surveying, especially during summer, drink a lot of water
   and be safe against sun strokes
   o Always participate in the mock safety drill with seriousness and understand the evacuation
   processes
   SUMMARY
   In conclusion it can be clearly ascertained that providing first aid to a person injured is the
   most important step in protecting him before receiving adequate medical assistance. First aid
   equipment must be in well maintained condition and the person responsible for providing first aid
   must always be available. They need to make sure that their absence is always by informing and
   making necessary arrangements. OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.151(b) promulgates the methods
   of first aid in a general industry.
   PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS
   ☞ Tasks that provide practical training in first aids to be given
   ☞ Students can be asked to write reports on different emergency situations
   ☞ Help of trained professionals from nearby industries or hospitals must be utilized
   ☞ Expert talks by doctors and trained nurses an also be sought
   ☞ Students can be asked to collect information from local industries about the emergency
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   response and first aid
   ASSESSMENTS
   Quizzes, Short Tests, reports as agreed by the departmental assessment plan: Questions
   could include but not limited to emergency preparedness and response in different situations and
   about different first aid and OSHA standards.
   CHAPTER 7
   HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY
   Course Learning Outcomes
   Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
   Understand the implications of safety violations due to human error and behavioral safety
   7.1 INTRODUCTION
   Achieving excellence in health and safety greatly depends of how an organization can
   change. The major challenge is to maintain a continuity in changes that lead to continuous
   improvement. There is no place for complacency when it comes to health and safety of an
   industry. Human factors greatly affect the performance of the industry and the social
   characteristics of the work group and its members.
   7.2 HUMAN ERROR AND BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY
   As stated in chapter 1, Domino theory of causation of accidents by H W Heinrich it is
   evident that accidents at workplace are resulting from a chain of events and generally 88% of such
   mishaps results from unsafe acts. Unsafe acts are resulting from human error and behavior.
   Figure 7.1 Human error and behavioral safety (/www.fqmltd.com)
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   7.2.1UNDERSTANDING HUMAN FAILURE
   Human failure may be categorized as two: Violations and Human Error; the latter in turn
   is classified into two, as skill-based errors and mistakes. This might happen to a well-trained and
   most experienced worker also. Human error is unintended actions or decisions which are not
   exactly violations that are deliberate in nature. Examples of Skill based errors are slips and lapses.
   Slips are not doing what you are supposed to do. Examples are omitting one or a few steps
   of a process, doing things too fast, doing things too slow, not putting a PPE, performing a task in
   the wrong direction, checking a measuring dial and noting a wrong value etc.
   Lapses are forgetting to do things. Examples are taking a mask to talk about and later
   forgetting to wear it, forgetting to switch off equipment, forgetting to turn off the stove etc.
   Slips and lapses might occur if the person is very familiar with the task and will perform
   thoughtlessly when the majority work is done and only the last few steps are left with, lot of
   interruptions while working etc. It can be prevented by using checklists, making the layout
   sequentially, applying the policy of not using phones while working, applying engineering
   controls like bar code readers after each step etc.
   Mistakes are failures in decision making which are either rule based, or knowledge based,
   and we do things wrongly thinking that they are right. Examples are wrong, overtaking while
   driving, entering a road on the wrong side etc. Mistakes happen when a person is doing many
   things at the same time and working against the pressure of time to complete them. This often
   happens due to environmental conditions, social issues, individual stress, equipment problems etc.
   Rule-based mistakes can be avoided by providing situational awareness. E.g. Rumble strips on
   roads create awareness of approaching roundabouts. Knowledge-based mistakes can be avoided
   by effective supervision and instructions.
   Violations are thoughtfully doing wrong things and cause a lot of accidents. Examples are
   not wearing seat belts, not using harness in scaffolding, allowing untrained drivers to drive,
   working without goggles, working under peer pressure, thinking as rules are too strict and
   unwanted and fail to follow etc. Violations can be controlled by routine monitoring and
   supervision, convince the workers about the rules, make the environment more conducive for
   workers, provide continuous training, encourage the workers to report their problems etc.
   7.3 BEHAVIOURAL SAFETY
   Behavioral safety is aimed at prevention or avoidance of unconscious unsafe behavior that
   has resulted from habit formation of doing things wrongly. Inappropriate behavior generally led to
   a significant number of accidents. It greatly depends on the attitudes and observations of the people.
   Safety managers must clearly define what is safe and unsafe behavior and provide feedback.
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   Managers and peers play a substantial role in how to reinforce safe behavior.
   Behavioral safety training can be given by different approaches.
   ✓ Behavioral safety by systematic and continuous improvement
   ✓ Behavioral safety based on observations and data collection
   ✓ Behavioral safety based on workers’ participation
   ✓ Behavioral safety based on focusing on specific unsafe behavior
   ✓ Behavioral safety based on focusing feedback on performance
   ✓ Behavioral safety based on the involvement of data driven decision making
   Certain points that can be kept in mind in this regard are
   o Do things when it is really needed
   o Always develop a network for support and guidance
   o Believe that the system that you are working on is your own and act accordingly
   o Listen to your employers and peers
   o Pilot the process and roll out only after securing completely and when you are fully
   confident
   o Do not underestimate the instructions and plan for safety
   o Perform things in the right manner and develop habits
   SUMMARY
   Positive safety culture can be made by maintaining healthy communication between
   employers and employees, demonstrating greater commitments by senior managers, providing
   higher standards of training, providing good working conditions, creating stress free work
   atmosphere etc. Behavioral safety offers several advantages in terms of reduced accidents,
   enhanced quality, reduced time for completion of a task, improved efficiency, good relationship
   between employers and employees, good teamwork, employee engagement and increased
   commitments. However, it takes a lot of time, usage of additional resources and determined efforts
   and commitment of senior management and administration.
   PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS
   ☞ Provide different behavioral safety cases and ask the students to develop plans for
   improving behavioral safety based on what they have studied in the preceding chapters
   7.4 ASSESSMENTS
   Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports on case studies and behavioral safety approaches
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   CHAPTER 7
   Exercise:
   I. Choose the correct answer (Multiple choice questions):
   Q1. The major challenge in maintaining continuous improvement in health and safety?
   a. continuity in changes b.Lack of resources c. Lack of training d.Lack of motivation
   Q 2. What is an example of a rule-based mistake?
   a.Entering a road in the wrong direction b.Not wearing a seatbelt c.Working without goggles
   d. All the above
   Q3.The rule-based mistakes can be avoided by
   a.Providing situational awareness b.Effective supervision and instructions c.Routine
   monitoring and supervision d. None of the above
   Q 4.Which of the following actions is an example of a violation?
   a.Doing things too fast b. Checking equipment c.Forgetting to switch equipment d. Not wearing the
   required PPE
   Answers:
   Q1. a Q2. a Q3. a Q4.d
   THEORETICAL QUESTION


3. Explain different approaches followed in Behavioral safety training.


4. Describe the Slips and Lapses with examples.
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   CHAPTER 8
   8 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS, REPORTING AND RISK
   ASSESSMENT
   Course Learning Outcomes
   Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
   Conduct accident reporting and investigations, preparation of the Risk Assessment
   Observation Sheet
   8.1 INTRODUCTION
   Accidents and incidents are to be reported, tracked and investigated so as to ensure the
   prevention of it in the future. Accident reports would be an important input for the ongoing safety
   training. Risk assessment is the procedure that helps in identifying the potential hazards and
   analyze what might be the consequence of the specific hazards. Risk assessment observation sheet
   is a highly effective safety management tool that breaks risk assessment into different stages in a
   matrix and specifies the identified hazards and also the people who are in risk.
   8.2 ACCIDENT/INCIDENT REPORTING
   Accident is an event that has occurred unintentionally and is resulting in damage, injury or
   fatality or combination of these. An incident is an event that has occurred unintentionally and may
   not result in damage, injury or fatality. It is compulsory to report and also record work related
   accidents that causes death, serious injuries, industrial diseases and dangerous occurrences.
   Moreover, it is a legal requirement as well to report an accident that causes a worker to abstain
   from work for a minimum of three days. OSHA standards 1960.29 and 1904.39 cover regulations
   for accident reporting and 1960.70 and 1904.7 cover the regulations of record keeping.
   The main aspects that must be reported are:
   o Work related accidents which are identifiable and causing injury
   o It must result in the type of injury that is in the reportable category
   o Type of death (If involved)
   o Type of injury
   o Injuries to non-workers
   o Occupational hazards that are reportable
   o How the work was organized
   o Who has carried out the supervision
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   o The machinery or equipment that is used
   o The condition of the site where the accident occurred
   o Other relevant findings
   o An easy guideline in reporting is to follow the 5W&H rule (What, Why, When, How,
   Where and Who) – 6 honest friends by Rudyard Kipling
   A Sample accident reporting and investigation for is added as Appendix 1
   8.3 RISK ASSESSMENT
   To understand risk assessment, it is essential to know about the following.
   Hazard: Act, Source and Situation that might lead to injury, ill health, death, damage to property
   or a combination of all these.
   Risk: Combination of the probability and severity of a hazardous or harmful event happening.
   Risk can be quantified as the product of probability of occurrence of an event and severity of the
   damage or destruction resulting from that event.
   Chance: It is a measure of how likely an accident is that may happen
   Severity: It is a measure of seriousness of the injury due to the accident
   Control Measures: It is the steps that is applied to remove the hazard or reduce the risk.
   Risk assessment is carried out mainly in three steps:
   o Identify the hazards in a workplace
   Physical, Chemical, Health, Human factors
   e.g. Heavy noise in spinning mills
   o Assess the risks of the hazards identified
   Based on the measure of likelihood, seriousness and how often the workers are exposed,
   risks are classified as low, medium and high
   e.g. High risk of health hazard for an operator and medium risk for a manager
   o Applying control measures that reduce the risks
   Attempts are made to eliminate the hazard. If that is not possible explore the possibility of an
   alternate method or applying precautions to reduce the effects of the risk.
   e.g.: Worker is provided with an earmuff, and the manager is asked to use a PPE ear plug
   while entering the area
   8.4 RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX
   A risk assessment matrix evaluates the probability and severity of a specific action that is
   expected to occur. It is also known as risk matrix and is a very valuable tool that helps an industry
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   to prioritize the actions and the level of attention that it requires. A sample risk matrix is depicted
   below.
   Figure 8.1 Risk matrix (Courtesy: www.stakeholdermap.com)
   8.5 RISK ASSESSMENT OBSERVATION SHEET
   A risk assessment observation sheet is used for assessing the risk and measuring it on the
   basis of its impact, probability and severity. A sample risk assessment observation sheet is
   attached in the Appendix II.
   8.6 ACCIDENT, FREQUENCY AND SEVERITY RATE
   Accident rate, frequency rate and severity rate can be calculated as shown below.
   Total numbers of lost time injury
   Accident Rate = Average number of employees X 1000
   Total numbers of lost time injury
   Frequency Rate =
   Man − hours worked
   X 1000000
   Severity Rate =
   Total man − days lost
   Man − hours worked X 1000000
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   Total man − days lost
   Incident Rate =
   Number of incidents reported
   Example 1: Based on the data given, calculate, Accident rate and Frequency rate.
   Employees: 200 (Average)
   Working hours (W.H): 8 hours per day
   Numbers of days in a month: 26
   Lost Time Injury (L.T.I): 2
   Total Man-hours = Average number of employees per day X Number of days in a month X W.H
   Total Man-hours = 200 X 8 X 26 = 41600 hours
   2
   Accident Rate =
   X 1000 = 10 per thousand
   200
   Frequency Rate =
   2/41600×1000000 = 48 per million
   Example 2. A company experienced workplace incidents that resulted in a total of 75 man-days lost
   over a year. During the same period, 15 incidents were officially reported. Calculate the Incident Rate
   for this company.
   Total man-days lost = 75, Number of incidents reported = 15
   Incident Rate = 75 / 15 = 5
   The Incident Rate for this company is 5. This means, on average, 5 man-days were lost per reported
   incident.
   Example 3. A company experienced 50 total man-days lost due to workplace incidents in a year. During
   the same period, the total man-hours worked were 500,000. Calculate the Severity Rate for this
   company.
   Total man-days lost =50
   total man-hours worked = 500,000
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   Severity Rate =100
   Severity Rate for this company is 100. This means for every 1,000,000 man-hours worked, there were
   100 man-days lost due to injuries or illnesses.
   8.6 OTHER RISK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
   Quantitative risk assessment techniques are HAZOP, Job Hazard Analysis (JHA), Fault
   Tree Analysis (FTA), Event Tree Analysis (ETA) are introduced here just to get familiarity with
   the names. It is beyond the scope of this course at this level of study.
   HAZOP Analysis is hazard and operability analysis used for quantitative risk assessment. It
   assesses the presence of hazards in an equipment and its vulnerability.
   Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) is done on a specific job or task so as to identify hazards before
   their occurrence. JHA is a relative study on different entities like the task, worker, tools and
   environment and thereafter it takes necessary steps to reduce or eliminate the potential threats.
   Event Tree Analysis (ETA) is an analytical technique to assess the process and events resulting
   a likely accident.
   Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a highly effective tool for systematically examining and finding
   hazardous areas for the purpose of mitigation and prevention
   SUMMARY
   Safety risk assessment is a methodological procedure for identifying, assessing and
   preventing hazards by control measures. It demands the detailed examination of the processes,
   equipment and work environment for the safety management.
   PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS
   ☞ Ask the students to make reports of different accidents by referring to Appendix I
   ASSESSMENTS
   Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports on risk assessment, calculations of accident rate, frequency
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   CHAPTER 8
   Exercise:
   I. Choose the correct answer (Multiple choice questions):
   Q1. is a act, Source and Situation that might lead to injury, ill health, death, damage
   to property or a combination of all these
   a. Hazard b. Risk c. Chance d. Probable
   Q2.It is a measure of how likely an accident that may happen
   a. Chance b. Severity c. Incident d.Control Measures
   Q3. The type of Analysis is hazard and operability analysis used for quantitative risk assessment.
   a.HAZOP b. Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) c.Event Tree Analysis (ETA) d.Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
   Q4. is a methodological procedure for identifying, assessing and preventing hazards
   by control measures.
   a. Qualitative assessment b. Risk Assessment c. Quantitative assessment d.None
   Answers :
   Q1. a. Q2. a Q3.b Q4.a
   THEORETICAL QUESTION


5. Explain the steps in Risk assessment process.


6. State the difference between Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA).
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   CHAPTER 9
   9 ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
   Course Learning Outcomes
   Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
   Adapt Omani standards for environmental safety and industrial effluents
   9.6 INTRODUCTION
   Environmental safety is a comprehensive safety policy that provides policies, practices and
   guidance so as to ensure that the environment is free from hazards and thereby result in the
   wellbeing of employees, general public and the flora and fauna which is also an essential part of
   the environment by preventing harmful releases to the environment. HSE managers are
   responsible not just for the safety of employees and industrial people alone but also have
   commitment to the compliance of all the regulations and environmental standards.
   9.7 RESPONSIBILITIES OF HSE MANAGER
   The main responsibilities of HSE manager in reference to environmental safety are as
   below:
   o Assessing the risk or the operations
   o Job hazard analysis
   o Incident investigations
   o Ensuring industrial hygiene
   o Environmental safety compliance
   o Safety observations by walkthroughs around the worksite
   o Hazmat controls
   o Appointing safety committees
   o HSE training
   o Collecting data regarding the leading and lagging indicators
   o Taking the industry towards environmental safety qualifications like ISO 14000
   9.8 OMANI STANDARDS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
   There is a series of laws and Sultani decrees promulgate the statutes and regulations related to
   environmental safety as below:
   Omani law on conservation of the environment and prevention of pollution is available in the link
   as herewith: https://www.sustainableoman.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/MD-5-86.pdf
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   Omani law on protection of sources of potable water from pollution is available in the link as
   herewith: https://owwsc.nama.om/WDocument/RoyalDecreeEN
   Sultani decree 114/01 deals with protection of habitats through environmental permit system
   which mandates any construction to be certified by Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
   (MOECA)
   Management of solid waste and its regulations are provided in MD 17/93 and for hazardous waste
   MD 18/93.
   MD 15/2021 is related to export of certain specific waste, MD 23/2020 has put a ban on single
   consumption plastic bag, MD 34/1974 is controlling marine pollution.
   9.9 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
   The major detrimental effect of rapid industrial growth and expansion is the waste industries
   are generating and its harmful effects on the environment. Most of the industries result in
   generation of huge quantity of waste in the form of harmful gases, smoke particulates et. that
   affects the air quality; solid wastes that are soil, aqua and marine pollutants and particular
   combination of pollutants contaminating the environment.
   Effluent treatment plant
   Environmental rules mandate the industries to have effluent treatment plants (ETP) to stop
   the discharge of pollutants to water bodies. Some industries like food processing units, dairy
   production, textile and dyeing, paper manufacturing, pharmaceuticals etc. ETP is compulsory.
   Most of the petroleum, petrochemical industries and refineries gas flaring is the major reason for
   environmental pollution.
   Effluent treatment plants mainly consist of different units like storage tank, equalization
   tank, neutralization tank, primary clarifier, anaerobic reactor, series of aeration tanks, final
   clarifier, sludge pumps and sludge drying pumps. The basic processes that happen in an ETP is
   as depicted below.
   Figure 9.1 Effluent treatment plant - processes
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   EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
   Different types of ETP and their levels can easily be understood from the table below.
   Table 9.1 Level of effluent Treatment
   (Courtesy: https://neoakruthi.com/blog/industrial-effluent-treatment-plant.html)
   Level of
   Treatment Description Processes
   Pretreatment
   or Preliminary
   Treatment
   It removes large solid waste like rags, grit and grease
   using screens and grit chamber
   It is a physical
   process
   Primary
   Treatment
   It removes settleable, floating waste and suspended
   solids. At this stage up to 70 % of suspended solids are
   removed and 30 % BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand)
   Physical and
   chemical process
   Sludge that are settling down at the bottom of the
   primary clarifier is frequently pumped out for sludge
   processing.
   Secondary
   Treatment
   At this level biodegradable organic matter is removed by
   aerobic processes by which 85% of organic matter is
   removed
   Biological and
   chemical process
   Tertiary
   Treatment or
   Advanced
   Treatment
   At this level residual suspended solids and even
   dissolved solids are removed. This improves the quality
   of the discharge of water. Processes like chlorine
   treatment, ozone treatment, UV light etc. are the main
   processes that remove the micro-organisms.
   Physical,
   chemical and
   biological
   process
   s.
   Working of Effluent treatment plant


7. Wastewater Influent & Preliminary Treatment: Raw wastewater enters the plant and undergoes
   preliminary treatment to remove large solids and grit, like rags, plastics, and sand, through
   processes like screening and grit removal.


8. Primary Clarifier (Primary Treatment): The wastewater then flows into the primary clarifier,
   where heavier suspended solids settle to the bottom as "primary sludge" due to gravity, and
   lighter materials like oil and grease float to the surface and are skimmed off. The partially
   clarified water proceeds to the next stage.


9. Aeration Tank (Secondary Treatment - Activated Sludge Process): This is the core biological
   treatment stage. Air is injected into the aeration tank, promoting the growth of a consortium of
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   microorganisms, known as "activated sludge." These microbes consume the dissolved and
   suspended organic matter in the wastewater, essentially "cleaning" the water biologically.


10. Secondary Clarifier (Secondary Treatment): The mixture from the aeration tank (mixed liquor)
    flows into the secondary clarifier. Here, the activated sludge (microbial flocs) settles to the
    bottom, separating from the now clearer treated water.
    o Recycle Activated Sludge: A portion of the settled activated sludge is recycled back to
    the aeration tank to maintain a healthy and active microbial population for continuous
    treatment of incoming wastewater.
    o Waste Activated Sludge: Excess activated sludge, representing the growth of
    microorganisms, is removed for further sludge treatment and disposal.


11. Disinfection (Tertiary Treatment): The treated water from the secondary clarifier, now largely
    free of organic matter and suspended solids, often undergoes disinfection (e.g., using chlorine or
    UV light) to kill any remaining harmful microorganisms before being discharged or reused.


12. Final Effluent: The disinfected, treated water is then released as "final effluent" into the
    environment (e.g., rivers, lakes) or directed for reuse purposes like irrigation or industrial
    processes.


13. Sludge Treatment and Disposal: The primary sludge and waste activated sludge collected from
    the clarifiers are further processed (e.g., thickening, digestion, dewatering) to reduce their
    volume and stabilize them for safe disposal or beneficial reuse (e.g., as fertilizer or for biogas
    production
    Figure 9.2 Flow chart of effluent treatment plant
    83
    EGHS1140 Health Safety and Environment
    9.10 ISO 14000
    ISO 14000 is the quality standard that governs the industries to reduce the adverse effects
    and impact on environment. It is a framework that helps all the industries to improve their
    operations and environmental consciousness in quality management systems.
    9.11 SUMMARY
    ETP purifies the wastewater, so that water can be reused and avoids the harmful effects to
    the environment. It takes care of the general contaminants like oil, grease, toxic materials, and
    harmful pollutants and the discharge is made ready to send out without affecting the environment.
    Design and construction of an effluent treatment plant depends on the quality of the effluent,
    quantity of wastewater, land availability and local effluent regulations. It is the responsibility of
    the HSE manager to carry out industrial safety and accident prevention along with environmental
    safety that is essential for sustainable development.
    9.12 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR STUDENTS
    ☞ Students may be taken for a field visit to get firsthand information about industrial safety
    and effluent treatment plants and can be asked to write a report
    9.13 ASSESSMENTS
    Quizzes, Short Tests, Reports based on industrial visit