Lakhasly

1. Introduction
   The role of technology as a resource for instruction of foreign language learners is increasing as educators recognize its ability to create both independent and collaborative learning environments in which students can acquire and practice a new language. In the eighties, the application of technology in language classrooms included the use of film, radio, television, language labs with audio/video tapes, computers, and interactive video (Cunningham, 1998). Various types of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) also began to become more commonplace (Iandoli, 1990). Although there were some innovative uses of software such as MacLang, the majority of CALL uses were limited, in form, to drill and practice exercises. As the technology advanced, we began to see more interactive uses of CALL as well as an increase in the integration of various media into the computer system (Pusack & Otto, 1990). Computer technology became more accessible to both individuals and schools. Moreover, our growing understanding of its potentials has encouraged a shift in emphasis from computer technology itself to its applications. That is, finding ways to use computers for enhancing teaching and learning has gained prominence in the research. Today, the use of multimedia, the Internet (especially the World Wide Web), and various forms of distance learning are wide spread. Interest in using them as tools to support language learning is growing, both from

• Babak Ghasemi .Tel : +98-938-766-6174 , fax:+98-852-4225353 E-mail address : [email protected]
  1877-0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.012

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the perspective of a language educator and that of a language learner. Through the use of the Internet, word processors, multimedia, hypermedia, drill and practice programs, students can engage in individualized instruction designed to meet their specific needs and participate in cooperative projects that foster communication with peers in their classrooms and throughout the global community. This research focuses on the potential of technology as a powerful tool for foreign language instruction and the challenge of training our lecturers in its instructional applications. This is indeed an important area and a current direction in foreign language teaching, which is under the discipline of applied linguistics (Strevens, 1992).
1 .1 CALL
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) may be defined as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning.
The new computer-based instructional technologies were incorporated in order to accomplish the following:

-line communication in the target language,

            speaking as well as second-culture competency.

CALL can be divided into two types: Communicative CALL and Integrative CALL.
A ) Communicative CALL:
Provides skill practice in a non-drill format through language games. Students are encouraged to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language. Computers are used as a tool and the target language is used exclusively.
B ) Integrative CALL:
It is based on multimedia computers and the internet. These developments shave brought text, graphics, sound, animation and video to be accessed on a single inexpensive computer. It is of two types. They are Multimedia CALL (CD-ROMS) and Web based CALL (on the Internet) .
Multimedia CALL
They create a more authentic learning environment using different media. Language skills are easily integrated through multimedia. Students have a high degree of control over their learning through hypermedia.
1 .2 Software Tools
Realizing the potentials of computer technology, educators have become increasingly interested in its use as a tool to augment foreign language teaching. Much of the reviewed literature regarding software tools consisted of a description of one or more pieces of software, a description of how this software was integrated into the learning environment, a description of the effects of the software on students, and possible implications for further study (Alderson, 2000; Chavez, 1997; Greenia, 1992;Hellebrandt, 1999; Legenhausen, &Wolff, 1990; Levin, Evans, & Gates, 1991;Nicholas & Toporski, 1993). Evaluative software articles also tended to discuss whether software was robust enough for school use. Reading and writing were the most frequently addressed skill areas. Numerous software programs were created in foreign languages such as English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, Japanese, and Russian. English was, however, the most commonly discussed target second or foreign language. The literature seems to indicate that the greatest need for software development is in the areas of listening and speaking, because these two areas were found to be sparsely represented.
1 .2 .1 Daedalus
Many studies on CMC examined the use of Inter Change, a component of Daedalus (1988-2002), in second language-learning classrooms (Beauvois,1992; Chun, 1994; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995). Inter Change is a

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synchronous discussion tool that allows users to have real-time written conversations and was originally developed to teach English composition and literature to native speakers of English (Bump, 1990). However, its usage has been expanded to second language instruction. One of the most important reasons that Inter Change has received a good deal of attention from second language teaching professionals is that it enables students to have meaningful and authentic conversations with others in the target language. This type of computer-mediated communication (CMC) has become an emphasis in recent language movements in part because it promotes students’ equal participation in the classroom (Chun, 1994; Kern; Sullivan & Pratt, 1996). In addition, all the language output produced in the Interchange session can be saved and sorted according by sender so that students can reflect on what they or others say. Thus, learners have an opportunity to monitor their own language production and learn from others' language
1 .2.2 Multimedia Authoring Software
Though commercial software (e.g., Daedalus, 1988-2002) was the topic of a large number of discussions, many articles discussed the tools created by the researchers themselves using an authoring software program. Such authoring packages, according to Motteram (1990), allow educators to create computerbased course materials with little or no computer programming experience. HyperCard (1987-1998), a Macintosh authoring program, was the most frequently cited tool among software researchers/developers (Borras, 1993; Donaldson & Morgan, 1994; Evans, 1993; Liu, 1994; Nagata, 1998). This may be because it is relatively inexpensive, highly accessible, and simple to learn and use. Padilla (1990), for example, reported that "HyperCard is very easy to use and can be directly applied to many aspects of instruction that occur every day in the classroom" (p. 224). Donaldson and Morgan added that HyperCard was the most cost-effective authoring tool for educators, considering its low price and ease-of-use. Moreover, researchers' comments seem to indicate that they appreciate the "tradition of sharing within the HyperCard community, a set of 'manners' which encourages free and open exchange of program code and thus benefit the novice user" (Donaldson & Morgan, p. 47).
1 .2.3 Word Processing Software
A number of articles discussed the need to create computer software based on sound pedagogy and language learning theories, while others stressed the importance of applying design principles in developing CALL applications (Allen & Periyasamy, 1997; Armstrong & Yetter-Vassot, 1994; Collentine, 1998; Masters-V\Xicks, Postlewate, & Lewental, 1996; Oller, 1996; Schwartz, 1995;Van Bussel, 1994). In addition to specific author ware and commercial software, the literature also addressed broader software application categories that included word processing software, the Internet, and speech recognition software. Word processing software, the most "lowtech" of the tools, "is perhaps the most accepted and universal use of computers in education today" (Hyland, 1993, p. 21).Typically, word processing software offers features such as spelling checkers, thesauri, dictionaries, style checkers, and grammar checkers (Levy, 1990). Some researchers asserted that word processing software tended to increase student enjoyment or appreciation of routine assignments by transforming traditional learning tasks into novel ones (Greenia, 1992; Scott & New, 1994). Greenia (1992) described an early use of a computer-based writing program whereby the class created, shared, and turned in electronic assignments on a floppy disk. The author asserted that this type of composition process facilitated the formation of communicative writing communities and transformed the conventional directive role of the instructor into the position of a facilitator for class discourse. Scott and New (1994) proposed that the development of their word processing program System D helped augment the curriculum by placing a focus on the writing process .Derwing et al. (2000) stated that the usefulness of speech recognition software for language students hinges on its ability to (1) recognize nonnative utterances and (2) identify problem areas of student production to provide corrective feedback. Thus far, research suggests that speech recognition technology is not sufficiently reliable to justify its implementation into second and foreign language classrooms (Coniam, 1998; Derwing et al.). Importance of Applying Pedagogy and Design Principles Apart from the reported enthusiasm for using computers, the realization that "technology is essentially impotent without creative and imaginative application" (Bailey, 1996, p. 73) was strong in the 1990s.Hoven (1999) proposed an instructional design model based on sociocultural theory for multimedia listening and viewing comprehension. Watts (1997) suggested a learner-based design model focusing on learners' goals and needs, rather than on the technology itself. In those discussions, the importance of technology-enhanced, student-centered activities was emphasized. Realizing the lack of design guidelines for language educators, Hemard (1997) presented some design principles for creating

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hypermedia authoring applications. The principles included "know[ing] and appreciate the intended users' needs," "user-task match," and "provide easy error-solving devices" (p. 15). He suggested considering such factors as technical, authoring, task, and interface requirements when authoring hypermedia language applications. Based on second language acquisition theory, Chapelle (1998) suggested seven criteria for developing multimedia CALL:

1. Making key linguistic characteristics salient,


2. Offering modifications of linguistic input,


3. Providing opportunities for comprehensible output,


4. Providing opportunities for learners to notice their errors,


5. Providing opportunities for learners to correct their linguistic output,


6. Supporting modified interaction between the learner and the computer, and


7. Potentials of Computer Technology in S/F Language Learning
   The 21st century poses more challenges to teachers all over the world as their skills have been extended to include being creative and innovative in using technology in the classroom. A significant amount of literature explored the potentials of computer technology with regards to teaching and learning languages more effectively. Dunkel (1990), for example, asserted that the possibilities of computer technology as a tool could include increasing language learners’ (1) self esteem, (2) vocational preparedness, (3) language proficiency and (4) overall academic skills. The pedagogical benefits of computer-mediated communication (CMC) as facilitated through e-mail and programs such as the Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment (11988-2002) became one of the most commonly discussed topics in foreign language literature (Salaberry, 1996). Some language educators implemented this new medium in the classroom and reported on its linguistic and psychological benefits (Beauvois, 1992, 1994; Chun, 1994; Gonzalez-Bueno, 1998; Kern, 1995; Sullivan & Pratt, 1996; Van Handle & Corl, 1998;Warschauer, 1995- 1996). Unlike many individual CALL applications, CMC seems to promote meaningful human interaction that can foster the language learning process. That is, advocates claim that CMC can be an excellent medium for cultivating new social relationships within or across classrooms, resulting in collaborative, meaningful, and cross-cultural human interactions among members of a discourse community created in cyberspace (Salaberry, 1996; Warschauer, 1997; Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996; Zhao, 1996). Moreover, discussions of the benefits of computer technology included the exploration of the application of certain technologies in specific language areas. Hypermedia technology with its linking and interactive capabilities was discussed as a tool to enhance vocabulary learning (Liu, 1994), and reading comprehension (Hult, Kalaja, Lassila, & Lehtisalo, 1990). Chun and Plass (1996) considered the potentials of using video and audio to support text comprehension. Kramsch and Andersen (1999) argued that multimedia technology could provide authentic cultural contexts that are important for language learning. Others advocated CALL programs, especially voice-interactive CALL for improving learners' speaking skills (Ehsani, & Knodt, 1998; James, 1996). Computer technology in combination with a conferencing system was considered an effective means of providing goal-directed writing courses tailored to different learning styles (Cornu, Decker, Rosseel, & Vanderheiden, 1990). In addition, Cononelos and Oliva (1993) reported employing UseNet and email to connect students in an Italian class with native speakers in order to facilitate discussions on cultural issues. Others shared their personal experiences in using electronic dictionaries for reading and writing (Hulstijn, 2000), and Web Course in a Box software to teach German (Godwin-Jones, 1999).
   2.1 The varying pedagogy:
   With the old pedagogy, teachers normally teach facts from books. The teachers are seen as a fountain of knowledge that has to be passed down to the students. On the other hand, the new pedagogy stresses on the teaching of strategies of deciding what information is needed. The teachers’ roles are as guides or facilitators to help learners to be skilled in selecting, accessing, evaluating, organizing and storing information. These strategies are important to manage vast amounts of information. The teachers also need to manage the time and courses and to construct knowledge autonomously in virtual learning communities. Besides performing this new role, the teacher is also the motivator of the whole learning process, and can facilitate intellectual group discussion. The teacher must reflect critically on the context of learning (mediated by technology), the methods (different than those used in the classroom), the students, the teacher’s own computer literacy (hardware, software and technical support needed), and other matters pertaining to digital literature. Learning via technology has many advantages. The Internet

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provides current and up-to-date data. It stores vast amount of information that can be retrieved quickly and easily. For language learning purposes, it provides text in authentic language, unlike the contrived language usually found Technology enables the teacher to transmit more information to a larger number of students in a shorter time. One should also ask: are teachers well versed in applying the technology to fulfill the needs of education? Effective use of computer technology also means a change in the school culture. This technology has caused teachers to change their methods and strategies. This is because computer technology and specifically the Web is not only an effective means for disseminating instructional material, but it can provide a context for effective collaborative material development which improves knowledge transfer.
3. Conclusion
The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. It can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. These emerging technologies give learners great opportunities to engage in authentic conversation and expand their exposure to target language .The social and learning impacts of these applications deserve great attention in the near future. Multimedia software as well as most online materials delivered via combination of different media caters to learners with different cognitive styles. Information technology benefits both the students as well as the teachers. Both get to know each other to enable the rapport normally associated with good teaching. It enables greater imaginative understanding through increased access to information and new ways of accessing the information. It enables the recording process to take place while it is being used. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials. Findings from numerous studies suggest that the use of visual media supported vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension and helped increase achievement scores. The use of online communication tools has been shown to improve writing skills in a number of studies. Studies on using Daedalus (1988-2002), in particular, showed that its use allowed all learners to have an equal opportunity to participate The technological advancements in the field of education should be constantly used by the students and teachers. The so called facilitators should strive hard to provide effective language education to children. It is time that we move to create a comprehensive, coherent language learning environment that reflects our enhanced knowledge of language acquisition, education, child development and technology. The integration of computer technology into the communication environment has the potential to transform the students from passive recipients of information into active participants, the technological advancements should be a part and parcel of any teaching programmer. As it provides the teacher with a clear challenge and a unique opportunit