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The three main variables of CC (elevated CO2, altered rainfall patterns, and temperature ranges) aggravate seawater rise; drought, heatwaves, wildfires, storms, and floods [118].It may also indirectly affect species and ecosystems through altering water flows, dryland salinity, and the frequency of extreme climatic events (floods, hail tropical cyclones, and ocean acidity) [122].Therefore, expansion of species ranges (migration); changes in species compositions and interactions (adaptation); changes in resource availability; spread of diseases to new ranges; changes in the characteristics of protected areas; and changes in the resilience of ecosystems are among impacts of CC on biodiversity [64, 121].It directly affects the growth and behavior of organisms, modifies population size and age structure, and affects decomposition, nutrient cycling, water flows, species composition, and interactions [64].
The three main variables of CC (elevated CO2, altered rainfall patterns, and temperature ranges) aggravate seawater rise; drought, heatwaves, wildfires, storms, and floods [118]. Increasing the global temperatures by 0.798 °C and concentration of CO2 level from 280 to 379 ppm equivalent on pre-industrial levels would have an impact on timing seasons of flora, and fauna [119]. Furthermore, changes in temperature, flooding, and sea level rise will change ecosystems. Likewise, changes in rainfall and temperatures will increase species extinction rates [120]. Therefore, expansion of species ranges (migration); changes in species compositions and interactions (adaptation); changes in resource availability; spread of diseases to new ranges; changes in the characteristics of protected areas; and changes in the resilience of ecosystems are among impacts of CC on biodiversity [64, 121]. In addition, CC through alteration of precipitation, temperatures, and flooding is exerting more pressure on habitats and species. It directly affects the growth and behavior of organisms, modifies population size and age structure, and affects decomposition, nutrient cycling, water flows, species composition, and interactions [64]. It may also indirectly affect species and ecosystems through altering water flows, dryland salinity, and the frequency of extreme climatic events (floods, hail tropical cyclones, and ocean acidity) [122]. Moreover, CC indirectly changes the disturbance regimes of an area. Therefore, species displaced by competition may fail to survive under a changing climate [122]. For example, the extinction rate of mammals for the period 1600 A.D.–2000 A.D. have been 50–100 times higher than the background rate for mammals estimated from the fossil record [123].
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