Lakhasly

What is Data Collection?
Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate information for research using standard validated techniques. A researcher can evaluate their hypothesis on the basis of collected data. In most cases, data collection is the primary and most important step for research, irrespective of the field of research. The approach of data collection is different for different fields of study, depending on the required information.
The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc.
Let’s consider an example of a mobile manufacturer, company X, which is launching a new product variant. To conduct research about features, price range, target market, competitor analysis etc. data has to be collected from appropriate sources. The marketing team can conduct various data collection activities such as online surveys or interviews. The survey should have all the right questions about features and pricing such as “What are the top 3 features expected from an upcoming product?” or “How much are your likely to spend on this product?” or “Which competitors provide similar products?” etc.
While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research.

Indeed, data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument or tool to collect the data from the selected sample.
II/ What is a Data Collection Tool?
Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system, case studies, document analysis, interviews, observations, and surveys or questionnaires are all tools used to collect data. It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in different ways and for different purposes.
Interviews
An Interview is a data collection technique (generation) that involves oral questioning of respondents. Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both. Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).

Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews
Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of measurement. They require a personal sensitivity, adaptability as well as the mastery of social and communication skills. The interviewer is really the ‘jack-of-all-trades’ in survey research. The interviewer’s role is complex and multifaceted. It includes the following tasks – locate and enlist cooperation of respondents, motivate respondents to do good job and clarify any confusion/concerns.
Important steps involved in interviews
Design interview questions
Think about who you will interview
Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
Develop an interview guide
Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
Do not ask leading questions
Plan and manage logistics
Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
Do you want to bring a notetaker?
Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
How long will each interview take?
Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?
Fundamental Types of Interviews in Research
There are three fundamental types of interviews in research: structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
Structured Interviews:
It is a fixed format interview in which all questions are prepared beforehand and are put in the same order to each interviewee. It is also known as a standardized interview and is significantly quantitative in its approach. Structured interviews are excessively used in survey research with the intention of maintaining uniformity throughout all the interview sessions. They can be closed-ended as well as open-ended – according to the type of target population. Closed-ended questions can be included to understand user preferences from a collection of answer options whereas open-ended can be included to gain details about a particular section in the interview.
Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only to follow the instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire. Structured interviews do not require the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they can produce consistent data that can be compared across a number of respondents.
Semi-Structured Interviews:
Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable amount of flexibility to the researcher to probe the respondents along with maintaining basic interview structure. Even if it is a guided conversation between researchers and interviewees – an appreciable flexibility is offered to the researchers. A researcher can be assured that multiple interview rounds will not be required in the presence of structure in this type of research interview. Keeping the structure in mind, the researcher can follow any idea or take creative advantage of the entire interview. Additional respondent probing is always necessary to garner information for a research study.
Typically, the interviewer has a paper-based interview guide that he follows. Since semi-structured interviews often contain open ended questions and discussions may diverge from the interview guide, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis.

Unstructured Interviews:

An unstructured interview is an interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined questions, although the interviewers usually have certain topics in mind that they wish to cover during the interview. Unstructured interviews flow like an everyday conversation and tend to be more informal and open-ended. This is in contrast to a structured interview, when a list of predetermined questions is used.
Despite not having a list of predetermined questions, unstructured interviews are still purposeful and somewhat directive. If interviewers hope to gain insight and valuable information from the person that they are interviewing, they cannot conduct an unstructured interview without having detailed knowledge or proper preparation.
Interviewers must always be mindful of the purpose and scope of the topics that they are hoping to discuss. Though they want their control over the conversation to be minimal, interviewers still need to know how to steer the conversation so that the person being interviewed stays on topic and discusses things that are relevant. As you can imagine, individuals who are skilled at conducting unstructured interviews go through extensive training.
Since unstructured interviews often contain open-ended questions and discussions may develop in unanticipated directions, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis. This allows the interviewer to focus on interacting with the participant and follow the discussion.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews
Interviews are most effective for qualitative research, they help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc. Possibly the greatest advantage of interviewing is the depth of detail from the interviewee. Interviewing participants can paint a picture of what happened in a specific event, tell us their perspective of such event, as well as give other social cues. Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question. Researchers can tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in order to get rich, full stories and the information they need for their project. They can make it clear to the respondent when they need more examples or explanations. Not only can researchers also learn about specific events, they can also gain insight into people’s interior experiences, specifically how people perceive and how they interpreted their perceptions. How events affected their thoughts and feelings. In this, researchers can understand the process of an event instead of what just happened and how they reacted to it.

Interviewing is not a perfect method for all types of research. It does have its disadvantages. There can be complications with the planning of the interview. Not only is recruiting people for interviews hard, due to the typically personal nature of the interview, planning where to meet them and when can be difficult. Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the last minute.
During the actual interview, a possible weakness is missing some information. This can arise from the immense multitasking that the interviewer must do. Not only do they have to make the respondent feel very comfortable, they have to keep as much eye contact as possible, write down as much as they can, and think of follow up questions. After the interview, the process of coding begins and with this comes its own set of disadvantages. Interviewing and coding can be extremely time-consuming.

2. Document Analysis
   Definition:
   Document analysis is a form of qualitative research in which documents are interpreted by the researcher to give voice and meaning around an assessment topic. Analyzing documents incorporates coding content into themes similar to how focus group or interview transcripts are analyzed. A rubric can also be used to grade or score a document.
   Documents contain text (words) and images that have been recorded without a researcher’s intervention. Documents that may be used for systematic evaluation as part of a study take a variety of forms. They include advertisements; agendas, attendance registers, and minutes of meetings; manuals; background papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; event programs (i.e., printed outlines); letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspapers
   press releases; program proposals, application forms, and summaries; radio and television
   program scripts; organisational or institutional reports; survey data; and various public records. Scrapbooks and photo albums can also furnish documentary material for research
   purposes. These types of documents are found in libraries, newspaper archives, historical
   society offices, and organisational or institutional files.

Researchers typically review prior literature as part of their studies and incorporate that
information in their reports. However, where a list of analysed documents is provided, it
often does not include previous studies. Surely, previous studies are a source of data, requiring that the researcher rely on the description and interpretation of data rather than having the raw data as a basis for analysis.
The analytic procedure entails finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of), and synthesizing data contained in documents. Document analysis yields data—excerpts, quotations, or entire passages—that are then organised into major themes, categories, and case examples.
Fundamental Types of Documents in Research
There are three primary types of documents:
• Public Records: The official, ongoing records of an organization’s activities. Examples include student transcripts, mission statements, annual reports, policy manuals, student handbooks, strategic plans, and syllabi.
• Personal Documents: First-person accounts of an individual’s actions, experiences, and beliefs. Examples include calendars, e-mails, scrapbooks, blogs, Facebook posts, duty logs, incident reports, reflections/journals, and newspapers.
• Physical Evidence: Physical objects found within the study setting (often called artifacts). Examples include flyers, posters, agendas, handbooks, and training materials.
Process of Document Analysis
Document analysis involves skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough examination), and interpretation. This iterative process combines elements of content analysis and thematic analysis. Content analysis is the process of organising information into categories related to the central questions of the research.
Thematic analysis is a form of pattern recognition within the data, with emerging themes becoming the categories for analysis. The process involves a careful, more focused re-reading and review of the data. The reviewer takes a closer look at the selected data and performs coding and category construction, based on the data’s characteristics, to uncover themes pertinent to a phenomenon

Strengths and Weaknesses of Document Analysis
In relation to other qualitative research methods, document analysis has both advantages
and limitations.
Let us look first at the advantages.
• Efficient method: Document analysis is less time-consuming and therefore more efficient
than other research methods. It requires data selection, instead of data collection.
• Availability: Many documents are in the public domain, especially since the advent of
the Internet, and are obtainable without the authors’ permission. This makes document
analysis an attractive option for qualitative researchers.
• Cost-effectiveness: Document analysis is less costly than other research methods and is
often the method of choice when the collection of new data is not feasible. The data
(contained in documents) have already been gathered; what remains is for the content
and quality of the documents to be evaluated.
• Lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity: Documents are ‘unobtrusive’ and ‘non-reactive’—that is, they are unaffected by the research process. (Previous studies found in documents are
not being considered here.)
• Stability: As a corollary to being non-reactive, documents are stable. The investigator’s
presence does not alter what is being studied. Documents, then, are suitable for repeated reviews.
• Exactness: The inclusion of exact names, references, and details of events makes documents advantageous in the research process.
• Coverage: Documents provide broad coverage; they cover a long span of time, many
events, and many settings.
Document analysis is not always advantageous. A number of limitations inherent in documents are described below.
• Insufficient detail: Documents are produced for some purpose other than research; they are created independent of a research agenda. (Again, previous studies located in documents are not being considered here.) Consequently, they usually do not provide sufficient detail to answer a research question.
• Low retrievability: Documentation is sometimes not retrievable, or retrievability is difficult.
• Biased selectivity: An incomplete collection of documents suggests ‘biased selectivity’ In an organisational context, the available (selected) documents are likely to be aligned with corporate policies and procedures and with the agenda of the organisation’s principals. However, they may also reflect the emphasis of the particular organisational unit that handles record-keeping (e.g., Human Resources).

These are really potential flaws rather than major disadvantages. Given its efficiency and cost-effectiveness in particular, document analysis offers advantages that outweigh limitations.
3. Observation method
Definition:
Observation means to watch attentively in a scientific or systematic manner. In an observational study, the current status of a phenomenon is determined not only by asking but by observing. Observation is sometimes treated as a research method, sometimes as data collection techniques to be utilized with a research method. As a data collection technique, it is used both in qualitative and quantitative studies.

Many researchers prefer systematic, direct observation of behavior as the most accurate and desirable method of recording the behavior of people. Using the direct observation, the researcher/investigator observes and records the behavior of the participants rather than relying on reports. When observation is made in research, it usually consists of detailed notation of behaviors, events, and the context surrounding the events and behaviors. In most cases, observation is usually employed to collect data regarding the number of occurrences in a specific period of time, or the duration, of very specific behaviors or events.

The observer’s role may vary from full participant to complete outsider. He may conduct the observations covertly (e.g., from behind), with the full knowledge of those being observed or with only some of those being observed aware of the observation. Moreover, those being observed may be given full explanation, partial explanations, no explanations, or given a false explanation. The observations may take place over course of an entire year or even longer or could be as brief as an hour. The observation may vary from quite broad to quite narrow. Observations can be of the setting or physical environment, social interactions, physical activities, nonverbal communications, planned and unplanned activities and interactions. The observer should also take into consideration for non-occurrences, things that should have happen but did not.

Observation method in data collection can be
Structured observation method – This is a systematic observation method where data is collected as per a pre-defined schedule. The specific variable is used in this method for data collection.
Unstructured observation method – The unstructured observation method is conducted in a free and open manner without using any pre-determined objectives, schedules or variables.
Types of Observation Method

1. 
   

   Controlled Observations
   The controlled observation is carried out in a closed space. It is the researcher who has the authority to decide the place and the time where and when the observation will take place. He also decides who the participants will be and in what circumstances will he use the standardized process. The participants are chosen for a variable group randomly. The researcher observes and records a detailed and descriptive data of behavior and divides it into a distinct category. Sometimes the researcher codes the action as per an agreed scale by using a behavior schedule. The coding can include letters or numbers or a range to measure behavior intensity and describe its characteristics

   
   


2. 
   

   Naturalistic Observations
   Social scientists and psychologists generally use the naturalistic observation method. The process involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of the participants in open or natural surroundings. The role of the researcher is to find and record whatever he can see and observe in natural habitat.

   
   


3. 
   

   Participant Observations
   The participant observation method is often considered a variant of the naturalistic observation method because it has some similarities with it. The point of difference is that the researcher is not a distant observer anymore because he has joined the participants and become a part of their group. He does this to get a more in-depth and greater insight into their lives. The researcher interacts with other members of the group freely, participates in their activities, studies their behavior and acquires a different way of life. Participant observation can be overt or covert.
   Preparing for Observation

   
   


4. 
   

   Determine the purpose of the observation activity as related to the overall research objectives.

   
   


5. 
   

   Determine the population(s) to be observed.

   
   


6. 
   

   Consider the accessibility of the population(s) and the venues in which you would like to observe them.

   
   


7. 
   

   Investigate possible sites for participant observation

   
   


8. 
   

   Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s), and anticipate how long you will collect participant observation data on each occasion

   
   


9. 
   

   Consider how you will present yourself, both in terms of appearance and how you will explain your purpose to others if necessary

   
   


10. 
    

    Plan how and if you will take notes during the participant observation activity

    
    


11. 
    

    Remember to take your field notebook and apen

    
    

Key points to consider when using observation as a method
Is it compatible with your research aims, questions and paradigmatic approach?
How will it add value to your research in addition to or in place of other methods?
Are there any ethical, access or other issues that might make observations difficult?
How will you collect observational data? Structured template, unstructured, semi-structured?
How will you organise your field notes, personal notes etc?
Will other data methods be used? If so, how will they add value?

Advantages of observation method
Provides direct access to research phenomena
By observing firsthand, the researcher can collect, check and record accurate data
Greater flexibility in terms of application
Generate a permanent record of phenomena and the researcher or others can refer with it later
The organization method is one of the simplest methods of data collection. It does not require too much technical knowledge
The observation method is one of the best ways to formulate a hypothesis. The researcher can observe and come to know about the activities, perceptions, likes and dislikes to form a theory on his subject
Observation method is one of the most common methods used in all sciences and is very easy to follow and accept
In some instances observation is the only available tool to collect essential data and information
The observation method does not require the willingness of the participant to record. The researcher can observe from a distance and record his findings
Disadvantages of Observation Method
Faces a severe disadvantage because it takes a longer time frame compared to other data collection methods
There is a chance of higher observer bias in the observation method
Several personal behaviors are not open for observation and this proves a limitation in case of observation method
There is a higher chance of the observer influencing the behavior of a sample group elements
Uncertainties of the event cannot determine the actual time when the event will take place, and this is why every occurrence that is open to observation cannot be observed
Many of the incidents are abstract like love, affection and the researcher can’t gain an exact and correct account of those
The social phenomena generalization made by observation are not considered reliable as it cannot be used for lab experiments
In some cases, it is seen that two persons observing the same phenomena come at different results and this can lead to faulty perceptions
Observation method is considered an expensive affair as it requires hard effort, plenty of time and high cost
4. Questionnaires
Definition:
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are designed to collect data from a group. 
For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn't a survey; rather it forms a part of it. A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including a questionnaire. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.
On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale, and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.
Question Types: Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –
 Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
 Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options.
 Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options.
 Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale.
A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item).
Question Sequence: In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the factual and behavioral to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific. There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows -
 Screens
 Warm-ups
 Transitions
 Skips
 Difficult
 Changing Formula
Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to ‘If yes, then answer question 3. If no, then continue to question 5’. Difficult questions are towards the end because the respondent is in ‘response mode’.
Classification or demographic question should be at the end because typically they can feel like personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are:
Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest.
Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers.
Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.
Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels.
Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?).
Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.

Questionnaire Administration Modes:
Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally.
Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper.
Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer. Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee’s estimated ability or trait.

Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking questions that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire.
Double barreled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An example of a double barreled question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement - ‘I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along well with others at work’. This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked to give one response for two questions.
Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases.

Advantages of Questionnaires:
-Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
-Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability.
-The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
-Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
-When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
-To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
-Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation.
-There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
-There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
-The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.
-People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of interest.