Lakhasly

Urogenital schistosomiasis
Adult S. haematobium worms live in the pelvic venous plexus, and the symptoms and pathological changes of urogenital schistosomiasis are closely associated with the passage of parasite eggs through the urinary bladder wall and egg deposition in bladder tissue and genital organs3,55. During an established active infection, clusters of living eggs in the urogenital tissues can be found surrounded by intense inflammatory reactions and intense tissue eosinophilia57,58. The passage of egg clusters into the lumen of the bladder is often accompanied by the sloughing off of the epithelial surface, ulceration and bleeding. The intense egg-induced tissue inflammation can result in bladder wall thickening and development of masses and pseudopolyps59,60. Inflammation and granuloma formation around the ostium (the opening of the ureter in the bladder) blocking the passage of urine can lead to hydronephrosis (swelling of a kidney as a result of a build-up of urine), which may, in some cases, result in a non-functioning kidney61. Urogenital schistosomiasis is associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder, and S. haematobium is now classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a carcinogen62,63. The carcinogenic process is closely related to tissue inflammation. Bladder cancer may occur after many years of exposure, infection and urinary tract inflammation63, when an established active infection, with eggs in the urine, is no longer detectable. Generally, late chronic infections are characterized by little or no detectable egg excretion and an accumulation of dead calcified tissue eggs, which may appear as yellow sandy patches in cystoscopic examination of the bladder mucosa58,59.

During established active infection, eggs are frequently deposited in genital organs such as the cervix57,64, seminal vessels and prostate65. Very characteristic cervical lesions are found in S. haematobium infections, including active-stage lesions with intense tissue inflammation with live eggs and chronic-stage sandy patches with clusters of calcified eggs57,66. Analysis of semen samples shows a higher prevalence of leukocytes and increased levels of inflammatory cytokines in men with genital schistosomiasis67. In both women and men, the manifestations of S. haematobium infection may play a part in HIV transmission by increasing the number of inflammatory cells and possibly viral load in semen and causing friable bleeding lesions on the cervical mucosa in women68.Urogenital schistosomiasis
Adult S. haematobium worms live in the pelvic venous plexus, and the symptoms and pathological changes of urogenital schistosomiasis are closely associated with the passage of parasite eggs through the urinary bladder wall and egg deposition in bladder tissue and genital organs3,55. During an established active infection, clusters of living eggs in the urogenital tissues can be found surrounded by intense inflammatory reactions and intense tissue eosinophilia57,58. The passage of egg clusters into the lumen of the bladder is often accompanied by the sloughing off of the epithelial surface, ulceration and bleeding. The intense egg-induced tissue inflammation can result in bladder wall thickening and development of masses and pseudopolyps59,60. Inflammation and granuloma formation around the ostium (the opening of the ureter in the bladder) blocking the passage of urine can lead to hydronephrosis (swelling of a kidney as a result of a build-up of urine), which may, in some cases, result in a non-functioning kidney61. Urogenital schistosomiasis is associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder, and S. haematobium is now classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a carcinogen62,63. The carcinogenic process is closely related to tissue inflammation. Bladder cancer may occur after many years of exposure, infection and urinary tract inflammation63, when an established active infection, with eggs in the urine, is no longer detectable. Generally, late chronic infections are characterized by little or no detectable egg excretion and an accumulation of dead calcified tissue eggs, which may appear as yellow sandy patches in cystoscopic examination of the bladder mucosa58,59.

During established active infection, eggs are frequently deposited in genital organs such as the cervix57,64, seminal vessels and prostate65. Very characteristic cervical lesions are found in S. haematobium infections, including active-stage lesions with intense tissue inflammation with live eggs and chronic-stage sandy patches with clusters of calcified eggs57,66. Analysis of semen samples shows a higher prevalence of leukocytes and increased levels of inflammatory cytokines in men with genital schistosomiasis67. In both women and men, the manifestations of S. haematobium infection may play a part in HIV transmission by increasing the number of inflammatory cells and possibly viral load in semen and causing friable bleeding lesions on the cervical mucosa in women68.