Lakhasly

Emergency Management in Saudi Arabia:
Past, Present and Future
Yassar A. Alamri'
He who is secure in his house, healthy in his body and has his
food for the day, has owned the world"- Prophet Mohammed
Introduction
The management of potentially hazardous situations such as religious mass
gatherings has been the duty of the people of Makkah (now part of Saudi Arabia) for
many centuries. Inhabitants of Makkah used to evacuate their houses to accommodate the
incoming pilgrims, and servants of the Holy Mosque used to distribute cold water to
quench pilgrims` thirst. This concept of serving mass gatherings formed the nucleus of
the first emergency management plans ir the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Today, Saudi
Arabia covers most of the Arabian Peninsula and has faced many other risks in addition
to those arising from religious mass gatherings
In order to improve on the existing emergency management policies and plans, it
is of crucial importance to examine the current emergency management system. It is also
pivotal tO reflect back on previous disasters and learn lessons from them to avoid
commiting the same mistakes again. It is saddening to discover that most emergency
policies implemented are either out-of-date, not fully documented or not easily
obtainable. This chapter will look at current hazards and vulnerabilities in Saudi Arabia. It
vill also provide a list of major disasters in Saudi history, and describe the curren
emergency management policies in the country. Finally, lessons learned from these
disasters and areas of improvement will be critically discussed. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in western Asia. It takes up most of the
Arabian Peninsula, with a surface area of 2,149,690 km and a population of 27.137
million (Central Department of Statistics and Information, 2010, United Nations:
Statistics Division, 2008). Of this population, 30% are 14 years or younger and only
4.75% are 60 years or older. International migrant stock, such as guest workers, represent
27.8% of the total population (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014). Saudi
Arabia's population living in rural areas makes up 18.6% of the total population. The
geography is varied, from coastal regions in the eastern and western parts, to
mountainous regions in the ;outh-west, and finally to the Rub? al Khali desert running
along the country's southern boarders where almost no life exists. The country is divided
nto 13 provinces which are further divided into governorates, each of these has a capita
that is headed py a governor. Figure 1 shows a simplified map of Saudi Arabia and 1ts
major cities. Medical student and PhD candidate (MBChB/PhD) at Christchurch School of Medicine, University of
Otago and Van der Veer Research Institute, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail:
[email protected] Hazards in Saudi Arabia
A hazard can be thought of as a potential risk endangering human life or health,
property or the environment. However, if this risk does lead to an incident, it is referred
to as an emergency situation or, if the damage is overwhelming, a disaster. Such events
are often the result of human factors, environmental hazards or natural causes. Although
considerable overlap occurs between these factors, there is usually one factor that
contributes significantly more than the others. This section will review hazards in Saudi
Arabia classified according to the main contributory factor
Human-related risks:
Terrorist attacks: Up until recent years, terrorist attacks have very rarely, if at all, been
heard of in Saudi Arabia. Citizens and foreigners have co-habitated for decades, even
pefore the foundation of the current Saudi Arabia. This was especially the case in areas
Jordan, Egypt, Yemen, Oman, and India regularly mingled and traded with local
merchants. With the rapid modernization that occurred to the country, more and more citizen-
'oreigner interactions were formed. This increased presence and power of foreigners in
the Kingdom is viewed by some extremists as posing a "threat."Lacking adequate
knowledge of Islamic laws, they took out-of-context quotes from Holy Scriptures tO
justify taking their souls, along with many others of their fellow citizens and foreigners
This has resulted in the unfortunate occurrence of several terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia
in the past few years (discussed later on in the chapter) Added to the human and
tructural losses, these bombings resulted in transient internal instability in the country
albeit brief, as well as interrupting public and international relations leading to an
unprecedented shift in regional and international political dynamics. Since Saudi Arabia is one of the leading oil-producing countries, this
from occur damage terminals protection Metrology in All tO extraction spite and and oil and Technological Saudi of tor wells, accidental all Quality maintenance factories refinement oil leaking hazards precautionary of to in Organization) the spillages.Type of disaster
Heavy rains
Fire during Haji
Militant occupation of
Holy Mosque in Makkah
Floods in north-western
Saudi
Iranian riots during Hajl
Stampede inside
pedestrian tunnel during
Hajj
No. affected
Date
1,000
April 1964
December 1975 NDA
November 1979 |Basically, the nature and timing of high risk seasons in Makkah make
he population of Makkah and its visitors more vulnerable to disasters and its impact
Another, although less significant, factor to exacerbate the vulnerability of Saudi
Arabia to the impact of potential disasters is the recent trend of reluctance from
international experts, including emergency planners, to work in the country especially
after the recent terrorist attacks (Maben et al., 2010).of high King spills enclosed pollution this However, in t salinity Fahad poses the and of the a and the Arabian receives great University Arabian rapid Arabian Gulf threat only Gulf of rate a. tO alone Gulf of iS slow living as by Petroleum water of rate especially heavy of marmne 2005 and water evaporation metals likely species, (Al-Suwian, Minerals tO Or exchange the leading have become 2001).5,000
At least 32
July 1987
July 1990
649
NDA
402
1,426
NDA
Compounded by
failure of ventilation
system inside the
tunnel
Fire during Hajj
April 1997
More than
1,500
500
343
Rift Valley Fever
outbreak
Jizan floods
September
2000
April 2004
87
NDA
430
Destroyed 2,680
km of hoses, lands
and roads
$900,000
Jiddah
November 2009 More than
floods
163
10.,000
Table 2.In addition, the GDCG centers started operating in more and more urban and
ural areas in the Kingdom with the help of the evolving telecommunication networks
Later on, in 1987, King Fahad ordered a reform of the GDCD's structure, goals
and responsibilities.power equipment hazards: Technological Depending outages, leading Technological hazard upon to the environmental iS the type early hazards ofg increasingly damage refer cessation operation to Or the becoming of ceased, health an partial risks operation technological recognized for malfunction the short or of separate hazards human total its
workforce.Some people under-estimated the risk and decided to take a trip in theit
cars to "enjoy" the rain, and these were the cars that were swept away by the flood and
clogged main streets. Moreover, some people have the attitude that "what God wills to
appen, will happen", however, this contradicts Islamic beliefs, Islamic teachings state
that every person has to do their best in taking precautions as
well as believing in God
and relying on Him.In 965, a Royal Decree by King Faisal dissolved the General Security and Fire
Services, and instead formed the current General Directorate of Civil Defense (GDCD)
This was following recommendations by the International Association of Fire Fighters
The scope of the GDCD was wider than previous emergency management bodies because
it was made the official body of civilian defense during peace and in times of instability.In summary, the vulnerability to disasters and their impact is compounded in
Saudi Arabia by multiple factors, such as the nature of the mass gatherings, the high
lliteracy rate and miscommunication of risk to minority groups.All 349 people on
board both flights were killed
Yanbu flood: heavy rains poured on western Saudi Arabia in January 1997, mainly
affecting Yanbu and peripheries of Jiddah.Riyadh 2005 flood: heavy rains poured on the Riyadh region of Saudi Arabia, as well as
on other areas in neighboring countries (i.e. Oman and the United Arab Emirates).After Hajj, at least
two to four weeks are spent on cleaning the Holy Mosque and fixing any damage caused
by the season itself rather than initiating new emergency preparedness projects
The scale and timing of these mass gathering seasons leave no choice for
emergency planners but to operate on full capacity, and surge capacity of human and
physical resources is almost null.Furthermore, with all the crowding during these mass gathering seasons, emergency
preparedness activities take longer to establish and are more expensive to run because of
the logistics and practicalities of establishing a preparedness program in a very crowded
city (i.e. Makkah).For example, during the rainfal that resulted in the flood in
Jiddah in 2009 (discussed in the next section), many people ignored warnings about using
motor vehicles for unnecessary trips simply because illiteracy means less attention to
uch messages. For this
section, data recorded in the IDD have been compared to information published in the
relevant medical literature as well as in local newspapers around the time of any given
disaster to check for accuracy (2000, Aguilera et al., 2002, Almulla, 2008, Lerner et al.,
2007, Thompson et al., 2004).Top 10 disasters causing major damages in Saudi Arabia between 1960 and
2010 (NDA = No Data Available) 985 flood: on 24 December 1985, heavy rains poured on north-western regions of Saudi
Arabia, leading to what has been described as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.oil from occur active incidents recorded processing in Standards, loading include still the oil
paragraph will focus on the risks posed by technological hazards i in the oili industry.Emergency preparedness is based on experience-sharing and international expertise is
central to any readiness activities and without such expertise the vulnerability to the
effect of disasters is multiplied
Vulnerabilities in reaction to emergencies
A country 'S reaction to emergencies once they strike determines the extent of the
damage.Development of emergency management plans in. Saudi Arabia
The development of emergency management suejd in Saudi Arabia started more
han 80 years ago, and has been progressing slowly since then The first nucleus of an
emergency management body was a fire brigade that was formed in Makkah in 1927
(Ministry of Interior, 2001).Targeting such risk factors, therefore, has the potential of dramatically improving
morbidity and mortality resulting from MVCs in Saudi Arabia.With this number of visitors, simple practicalities, such as when to perform
physical prayers, can result in profound adverse effects that can exhaust available
resources.For example, an observational study from Al-Noor Specialist Hospital in Makkah has shown that most emergency department admissions were during the evening
shift (4pm-12am).Top 10 natural disasters in
Saudi Arabia for the period 1964 to
2010, sorted by the number of people
killed (source: International Disaster
Database) Vulnerability in Saudi Arabia
Vulnerability in any country can be gauged by how it prepares for and reacts to
emergency situations and hazards. Khobar tower attack: on 25 June 1996, a terrorist truck bomb (estimated toe carry
20,000 pounds of TNT equivalents) exploded in Dhahran, eastern Saudi Arabia.As early as 11
a.m., floods had already resulted in a temporary power outage on the whole western
egion of Saudi Arabia (i.e. Makkah, Medina and Jiddah).In a review of MVCs from all Gulf countries, Saudi Arabia had the highest
incidence of accidents including pedestrians (Al-Tukhi, 1990).Ramadan and Hajj seasons: Ramadan and Haj are two special seasons on the Islamic
calendar, for which a massive influx of people from all over the world come to Saudi
Arabia.industry 1 accidental oil-related Some and can of there accordance ballast the Occur Unfortunately, have operations at with water incidents any S been are SASO stage that however, discharge about very of can 36 (Saudi.This miscommunication leads to increased vulnerability of minority groups in Saudi Arabia
who are labor workers living in high risk areas.The Saudi
Ministry of Health declared an epidemic (i.e. the first of its kind in Saudi Arabia), and
advised citizens to wear mosquito repellants.With a sound infrastructure and a proper drainage system lacking, this rain turned into the
worst disaster that Jiddah has experienced in 27 years or so. The downpour resulted in the
formation of water tides coming from the hills on the east of the city, heading west
lowards the Red Sea and cutting their way through the City.For example, the province of Makkah has witnessed more
MVC-related deaths (26.02%) in 2008 than the rest of the 13 provinces of Saudi Arabia. Given that the Islamic calendar employs a lunal cycle, these events do not
equate to a particular time on the Gregorian solar calendar (which is usually 11-12 days
longer).This also means that these events cycle between seasons (i.e. summer, fall,
winter and spring) every tew years
During the fasting month of Ramadan, it is an Islamic belief that good deeds are
exponentially greater.Natural disasters: Saudi Arabia has recently become known for media-attracting
incidents such as terrorist attacks and major MVCs.There has been a call for occupational emergency personnel who can speak languages
most commonly used by foreign workers (e.g. Urdu and Filipino); attempts to date have
been unsuccessful.History of disasters in Saudi Arabia
Almost all major disasters in Saudi Arabia can be attributed to one or more of the
razards and vulnerabilities mentioned in the previous sections.Stampede in Hajj season 1994: During one of the rituals of Hajj, a stampede occurred
as pilgrims leaving the site crossed roads with those coming in. This led to a massive
disorder culminating in the death of 270 pilgrims, most of whom were trampled.On 12 November 1996, Saudi flight 763 was en route to Saudi Arabia
rom India when it collided with Kazakhstan Airlines flight 1907.Riyadh 2003 bombings: on 12 May 2003, attacks on three different housing compounds
were conducted by a group of nine radical terrorists.The attackers then detonated their bombs and the vehicles, resulting in
significant damage to buildings and vehicles and leaving large craters.Furthermore, King Abdullah
10
Bridge on the South of Jiddah had partially collapsed, adding to the chaos and fright tQ
the situation.Meanwhile, fire brigades formed in a number of other cities including
Medina, Jiddah, Riyadh, Qasim, and Dammam.As a result, staff from the GDCD administration paid several visits
to investigate
civil defense advancements and
to neighboring and other friend countries
useful experiences in these countries.Motor Vehicle Crashes (MVCs): MVCs are the leading cause of mortality and
morbidity in Saudi Arabia.Supporting this theory is the
notable increase in MVCs and deaths seen during the special seasons on the Islamic
calendar (discussed next).The vast majority of MVCs result from driver-related offences, as opposed to road- or
vehicle-related causes (Ministry of Interior, 2008).This was attributed to to the fact that most patients were fasting and had
peen exposed to the high temperatures of summer while performing prayers during the
day (Dhaffar et al., 2005).5
Iaj refers to the major pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque in Makkah, carried out over
days on the 12th month of the Islamic calendar.major overcrowding In stress On
addition,
and
trampling, increased MVCs, spread of infectious diseases and other public health
implications.This section will examine vulnerabilities in Saudi
Arabia in terms of emergency preparedness and reaction to emergencies once they occur.Emergency preparedness vulnerabilities
audi Arabia has certain vulnerabilities that can hinder the country's ability to be
better prepared for hazards discussed previously.Saudi
Arabic has several factors that could hinder recovery efforts and increase the
vulnerability to disasters impact.Many communities
in Saudi Arabia have a higher vulnerability to the impact of disaster because people do
not appreciate risks and ignore official messages
Another problem is the language barrier among immigrant workers in Saudi
Arabia.Immigrant workers made up 53.1% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia in 2008
(Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014).In spite of this large number, most
precautionary warnings issued by officials during disasters are still publicized in Arabic!The International Disaster Database (IDD) of the WHO provides the
est record of disasters in Saudi Arabia (International Disaster Database, 2010).The following
description of the most significant
disasters in the history of Saudi Arabia:
1964 rains: this is the earliest recorded account of a natural disaster in Saudi Arabia.Fire incident in Haj season 1975: during Hajj season in 1975, a fire broke out in one of
the pilgrim's tents near Makkah and quickly spread to other tents, The fire was caused by
an explosion of a gas cylinder, and led to the death of 200 pilgrims.Seizure of the Holy Mosque in Makkah: on 20 November 1979 the Holy Mosque in
Makkah was occupied by a group of armed Muslim extremists.They called on
he people to revoke the current Saudi Monarchy and obey their leader, Abdullah Hamic
Al-Qahtani.Ras al-Khafji thunderstorm: in October 1982, a severe thunderstorm hit Ras al-Khafji
city on the east coast of Saudi Arabia.Estimates of damage were not recorded, except that there were at least 32 people killed
from the flood
Iranian riots in Hajj 1987: in July 1987, the Civil Defense forces and Saudi Police had
?This led to
political tension between the two countries, and Iranian pilgrims were held from entering
Saudi Arabia for Haji seasons 1988 and 1989.The
attack was aimed against troops of US Air Forces, US Army and coalition forces who
billeted in Khobar towers military compounds.On Monday 25 March
997, heavy rains poured on the region, leading to floods that resulted in 16 fatalities and
damaged an area of just below 100,000 km2 of land.fire incident in Hajj season 1997: in April 1997, a gas stove exploded in one of the
pilgrim's tents, leading to a massive fire that quickly spread to other nearby tents.Meningitis outbreaks in Hajj and Ramadan: outbreaks of N. meningitides serogroup
W135 have been reported from as early as 1987.The 2000 Rift Valley Fever outbreak: beginning in early September 2000, it had been
noticed that goats and sheep were being found dead in some areas of the far south of
Saudi Arabia.Soon after, reports of hemorrhagic fevers from the same region started to
ncrease, which had subsequently been identified as Rift Valley Fever.This led to flooding of water in some areas, claiming the lives of
19 people; hundreds of Makkah residents were rescued by the GDCD that week.The
resultant flood claimed the lives of seven people: 700 people had to be evacuated via
GDCD helicopters and another 700 were left homeless.Hostel collapse in Makkah: in Haji season 2006, a hostel near the Holy Mosque
collapsed after a fire had spread in lower floors of the building.Riyadh 2010 flood: on 3 May 2010, Riyadh city experienced a brief 45-minute water
shower, accompanied by light hail and winds gusting up to 24 km/hour.Driver-related offences can be divided
into the following categories: road-code offences, yehicle misuse, driving misjudgments
and other offences.Ramadan is the ninth month on the Islamic calendar, while Hajj occurs on the
12th month.As a result, many Muslims from around the world make an effort
to visit the Holy Mosques in Makkah and Medina to perform prayers and other rituals
This leads to a cumulative number of visitors of about 2 million people over a period of
only 30 days.During
Hajj season, there is an almost sudden increase in Makkah's population from 200,000
the permanent Makkah's limited modest space inhabitants in supplies to Makkah well of food over has 3 and raised million water as concerns people.Compounding this problem is the geography
of some of the most populated cities in Saudi Arabia.This has affected the progress of a
wide range of collaborative developmental projects including emergency preparedness
projects, for which more expertise and skill than available in the country is required.In 2007, illiteracy rates were 23.6% in females and
.6% of males over 15 years (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014).Not being
able to read safety brochures or use the internet and other media resources for public
announcements can have adverse consequences and place the population on higher risk of
peing a victim of disasters.On the morning of the day of seizure, they chained the gates of the Mosque, killed the
two guards on-duty at the time, and held present worshippers hostages.Stampede in Hajj season 1990: as pilgrims were moving between the sacred sites on the
second day of Hajj season in 1990, a massive stampede occurred in a tunnel south of
Makkah, The stampede occurred after what is thought to be a failure in the ventilation
system inside the tunnel.Asir flood: Asir is a province in the Southwest of Saudi Arabia.In the Ramadan of 1992, an epidemic
occurred, but all cases have been confined to residents of Saudi Arabia.Makkah 2003 flood: not quite recovered from previous year`s rain, Makkah experienced
yet another heavy shower described as the worst rains in Makkah in 25 years.Seven
vehicles, packed with explosives, gained entry into the compounds after attackers killed
the guards.The amount of water 1n this
relatively brief downpour (around 90 mm`) doubled the average annual rainfall in Jiddah.Several residential houses collapsed, forcing many inhabitants to upper floors and
roofs.A
survey committee, appointed by the Governor of Riyadh, has started assessing the extent
of and the reasons behind the damage that resulted from the rain.There have been almost 500,000 MVCs in 2008 alone,
resulting in over 6,000 deaths (Ministry of Interior, 2008).This, in part, has been
attributed to the social and economic development in the country, leading to a
considerable increase in the numbers of drivers and vehicles.Of these categories, road-code offences have been the most common,
with overspeeding and running red lights having accounted for more than 50% of all
MVAs in 2008.MVCs are on the rise internationally, but they are particularly problematic in Saudi
Arabia.Not only has this been
claiming the lives of many people in Saudi Arabia, but it has also been exhausting
national resources that could be better utilized.Floods are the
most frequently encountered natural disaster in Saudi Arabia.The reason behind floods being a major threat in Saudi Arabia is multi-faceted.Rains have been relatively scarce in the area, and this has lead to the under-developmen
of a proper drainage system in the country.One of these is 1S the short time availablo
to prepare for high risk seasons, namely, Hajj and Ramadan season.As people start to
eave after the Ramadan season, more and more people arrive in Makkah in preparatior
for Hajj.Multiple factors could improve or hinder the reaction to emergencies.These are usually social and demographic factors, such
as the high rate of illiteracy and language barriers among vulnerable populations.These factors all tend t
slow down preparedness activities and make recovery after disasters even slower.The attackers had planned
to seize the Mosque by filling coffins with weapons and smuggled them into the Mosque.The
surviving insurgents were captured by Saudi authorities and later executed.This stimulated
authorities to tO design the currently used fire-proof tents, as well as banning gas-operated
material.However, in Haji
season 2000, another outbreak of the same infection occurred, only to include pilgrims
from various countries this time.Makkah 2002 flood: heavy rains started falling on Makkah area on 8 April 2002 and
lasted for a whole week.Medina 2005 flood: very heavy showers fell on Medina region in January 2005.Jiddah 2009 flood: at around 6:30 a.m. on Wednesday 25 November 2009, rain started
falling heavily in Jiddah, and continued for around 12 hours.Overall, 161 people lost their lives as a result of the floods, either drowning or
`rom car crashes.In turn, this has
overwhelmed traffic services in urban and rural areas.Of note, more than one-third of all MVA-related deaths are seen in the
18-29 years age group (which is most expected to undertake such driving stunts).It is obligatory for each adult Muslim,
physically and financially capable, to perform Hajj at least once in their lifetime.(Al-Suwian, any of studies salinity also since the significant has 2001).This line-up of mass
gathering seasons leaves no time for proper emergency preparedness projects.Any extra resources are only used for increasing the
operating capacity to handle more visitors rather than to increase the surge capacity.Illiteracy and lack of proper education can negatively affect people's attitudes
towards emergency preparedness.In short, lower education level and illiteracy leads to less effective
risk-communication and under-appreciation of the power of disasters.Unfortunately, there is nc
official publicly-available database that keeps a record of disasters in the country.Table 2 shows a chronological list of major disasters in the
1S
past 50 years in Saudi Arabia.Heavy rains poured continuously on parts of the country leading to a flood that killed 20
people and left about 1,000 people either injured or homeless.After more than two weeks of cross-fire with the Saudi Army, and with the
help of Pakistani and French forces, the siege of the Mosque was ended.600
No. killed
20
200
250
Effect estimates
NDA
NDA
Help from Pakistani
and French forces
$450,000
December 1985 |open fire against Iranian demonstrators after arguments escalated to fights between the
two parties.1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision: even though this tragic event occurred outside
the country, it deserves to be mentioned since it is considered the deadliest mid-air
collision in history.This had led to the spread of the infection to countries
from which hose infected pilgrims came.The reported cumulative number of deaths is
57, but is likely to be considerably higher.Areas where dead animals were found were
quarantined; live stock in endemic areas were checked and exterminated if found ill.These sites are thought to have been
chosen because they contained a large number of Westerners and non-Muslims.Jizan 2004 floods: less than four months apart, two floods hit the Jizan region, leading to
what has been described as Jizan's worst floods in 45 years.This
resulted in a flood that caused the Yatamah dam to fail, killing 29 people.in of hazards.2.3.