Lakhasly

1.1.3 The Discipline of Information Systems
As a discipline of study, IS has to do with the assessment and evaluation of both existing and prospective business systems, both manual and computerized, with the objective of improving their performance in terms of both efficiency and effectiveness, using such systematic tools and approaches to the analysis and design of information systems as the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM) (Harris, 2009).In addition to supporting decision-making, information systems help managers and other workers analyze complex problems, develop new products, and integrate various modules both within and across departments (Alter, 2001; Haag & Cummings, 2012).Moreover, the transmission of information and data made possible by IS allows inter-departmental communication, leading to better coordination and improved transparency by sharing information throughout the organization (Thompson, 2005).In the advent of computing, the assessment and evaluation of old manual systems has inevitably resulted into the implementation of automated systems through the use of computers (Callon, 1996; Willocks, 1996).It has also been defined as a system that assembles, stores, processes, and delivers information relevant to an organization (or to a society), in such a way that the information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including managers, staff, clients, and citizens (McCleod, 1990; Armstrong, 2001).By the mid 1990s, it was evident that a corporation could not effectively and efficiently do business without a solid functioning IS setup, both inside its own walls as well as connecting it with its supply-chain stakeholders such as vendors and distributors.Although IS has evolved over the past sixty years to become the backbone of business and industry that it is today, the simple application rules created in the 1960s and 1970s still remain relevant in applications where data or information is transferred whatever the business model, no matter the complexity (Laudon & Traver, 2011; Haag & Cummings, 2012).The assessment and evaluation of systems, existing or conceived, is a fundamental step in the systems development life cycle (SDLC) (Whitten & Bentley, 2005).Today, this fact is evident in the roles played by the World Wide Web, the Internet, the Local Area Networks within enterprises, and the Wide Area Networks that connect multinational corporations throughout the globe.Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), previously known as Electronic Data Processing (EDP), brought profit margins low to the extent that any business that did not use it found itself out of business within only a short period of time.1.2 Definition of Information Systems
Information Systems is a technology driven system that can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect, retrieve, process, store and distribute information to support decision making in an organization (Alter, 1999).In this sense it refers not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with it in supporting business processes (Alter, 1999).Electronic computers and related software programs are only the technical foundations, the tools, and materials of modern information systems (McCleod, 1990).To understand an information system, one needs to understand the problems it is designed to solve, both the architectural and design solutions, and the organizational processes that require these solutions (Bateman & Snell, 1990; Willocks, 1996).Telex became the standard for information transfer, while the mainframe computer became the standard for database implementation (Laudon & Laudon, 1987b; Lyytinen & Newman, 2008).By the mid 1980s most manufacturing companies had embraced IS for much of their operations such as forecasting sales, taking orders, and managing distribution of their products.Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead, on the end use of information technology (McCleod, 1990).INTRODUCTION 1.1 The History of Information Systems Although the history of Information Systems (IS) as a subject of study only spans six decades, it has done more towards advancing development of the human race than any other discipline in history.At that time a number of business schools began to develop Management Information System (MIS) programs to meet the perceived growing needs of IS managers.In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, processes, data and technology (Armstrong, 2001).Information systems are also not to be confused with business processes whose performance they control (Turban, Mclean, & Wetherbee, 2002; Frenzel, 2004).By the 1970s, upper level management was recognizing the importance of IS to both business operations and business management and the flexibility it was able to bring to the entire organization.Today, the internet, the moral fiber of IS, has enabled expansion of both business and industry into global markets.As a result, the globe has become the market place for many enterprises, both big and small (Haag & Cummings, 2012).According to Anthony & Govindarajan (1995), Information Systems is any combination of information technology and people activities that support operations, management, and decision making.Some researchers have made clear distinctions between information systems, computer systems, and business processes.In most cases, IS are formal, computer-based systems that play integral roles in organizations.By the mid 1960s IS was already forging its way into the business mainstream.It is a social (human activity) system that may or may not involve the use of computer systems (Thompson, 2005; Baltzan, 2011).Although most are computer-based, any (old) computer or software program is not necessarily an information system.

1. INTRODUCTION
   1.1 The History of Information Systems
   Although the history of Information Systems (IS) as a subject of study only spans six decades, it has done more towards advancing development of the human race than any other discipline in history. Today, this fact is evident in the roles played by the World Wide Web, the Internet, the Local Area Networks within enterprises, and the Wide Area Networks that connect multinational corporations throughout the globe. By the mid 1960s IS was already forging its way into the business mainstream. At that time a number of business schools began to develop Management Information System (MIS) programs to meet the perceived growing needs of IS managers. By the 1970s, upper level management was recognizing the importance of IS to both business operations and business management and the flexibility it was able to bring to the entire organization. Telex became the standard for information transfer, while the mainframe computer became the standard for database implementation (Laudon & Laudon, 1987b; Lyytinen & Newman, 2008). By the mid 1980s most manufacturing companies had embraced IS for much of their operations such as forecasting sales, taking orders, and managing distribution of their products. By the mid 1990s, it was evident that a corporation could not effectively and efficiently do business without a solid functioning IS setup, both inside its own walls as well as connecting it with its supply-chain stakeholders such as vendors and distributors. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), previously known as Electronic Data Processing (EDP), brought profit margins low to the extent that any business that did not use it found itself out of business within only a short period of time. Today, the internet, the moral fiber of IS, has enabled expansion of both business and industry into global markets. As a result, the globe has become the market place for many enterprises, both big and small (Haag & Cummings, 2012).
   1.2 Definition of Information Systems
   
   Information Systems is a technology driven system that can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect, retrieve, process, store and distribute information to support decision making in an organization (Alter, 1999). It has also been defined as a system that assembles, stores, processes, and delivers information relevant to an organization (or to a society), in such a way that the information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including managers, staff, clients, and citizens (McCleod, 1990; Armstrong, 2001). It is a social (human activity) system that may or may not involve the use of computer systems (Thompson, 2005; Baltzan, 2011). In addition to supporting decision-making, information systems help managers and other workers analyze complex problems, develop new products, and integrate various modules both within and across departments (Alter, 2001; Haag & Cummings, 2012). Moreover, the transmission of information and data made possible by IS allows inter-departmental communication, leading to better coordination and improved transparency by sharing information throughout the organization (Thompson, 2005).
   
   According to Anthony & Govindarajan (1995), Information Systems is any combination of information technology and people activities that support operations, management, and decision making. In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, processes, data and technology (Armstrong, 2001). In this sense it refers not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with it in supporting business processes (Alter, 1999). Some researchers have made clear distinctions between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead, on the end use of information technology (McCleod, 1990). Information systems are also not to be confused with business processes whose performance they control (Turban, Mclean, & Wetherbee, 2002; Frenzel, 2004).
   
   In most cases, IS are formal, computer-based systems that play integral roles in organizations. Although most are computer-based, any (old) computer or software program is not necessarily an information system. Electronic computers and related software programs are only the technical foundations, the tools, and materials of modern information systems (McCleod, 1990). To understand an information system, one needs to understand the problems it is designed to solve, both the architectural and design solutions, and the organizational processes that require these solutions (Bateman & Snell, 1990; Willocks, 1996). Although IS has evolved over the past sixty years to become the backbone of business and industry that it is today, the simple application rules created in the 1960s and 1970s still remain relevant in applications where data or information is transferred whatever the business model, no matter the complexity (Laudon & Traver, 2011; Haag & Cummings, 2012). In the advent of computing, the assessment and evaluation of old manual systems has inevitably resulted into the implementation of automated systems through the use of computers (Callon, 1996; Willocks, 1996).

1.3 The Discipline of Information Systems

As a discipline of study, IS has to do with the assessment and evaluation of both existing and prospective business systems, both manual and computerized, with the objective of improving their performance in terms of both efficiency and effectiveness, using such systematic tools and approaches to the analysis and design of information systems as the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM) (Harris, 2009). The assessment and evaluation of systems, existing or conceived, is a fundamental step in the systems development life cycle (SDLC) (Whitten & Bentley, 2005). Inarguably, a poorly analysed and designed system is a failed project on the „get go‟, regardless of the amount of resources deployed further along the development process (Jarke et. al., 2011). This makes it important and necessary to develop specific and dedicated skills for the analysis and design purpose, which are Systems Analyst and Designer skills within the IS discipline (Harris, 2009). Businesses rely on information systems professionals to address pertinent issues of: What information does the enterprise need? How is that information generated? Is the information delivered to the people who need it – on a timely manner? Is the information presented to the people who need it in ways that permit them to use it readily? Is the organization structured in a way that makes it possible for it to use technology effectively? Are the business processes of the organization well designed? Do the business processes use the opportunities created by information technology fully? Does the organization use the communication and collaboration capabilities of information technologies appropriately? Is the organization capable of adapting quickly enough to changing external circumstances?

1.3.1 Management Information Systems

Management Information Systems (MIS) is the sub-set of Information Systems that provides information needed to manage organizations efficiently and effectively. Management Information Systems go beyond computer systems to encompass the three primary components of technology, people, and information for decision making. Academically, the term MIS is commonly used to refer to the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations evaluate, design, implement, manage, and utilize systems to generate information that improve efficiency and effectiveness of decision making (Armstrong, 2001). The people component includes individuals, groups, or organizations (Anthony & Govindarajan, 1995). Management information systems are distinct from other information systems in that they are designed to analyze operational activities and to facilitate strategic decisions in the organization based on captured data. Specific management information systems include decision support systems, expert systems, and executive information systems (Baltzan, 2011); Laudon & Traver, 2011).

Though it is sometimes applied to all types of information systems used in business, the term MIS actually describes specific systems that provide managers with reports and, in some cases, on-line access to the organization's current and historical performance records. According to some authors, MIS primarily supports the functions of planning, coordination, and decision making at the management level (Curtis, 1995; Anthony & Govindarajan, 1995; Alter, 1999). They are among a number of different types of information systems that can serve the needs of the different levels of an organization (Thompson, 2005). For example, information systems might be developed to support upper management in planning the company's strategic direction, to help middle level management in coordinating departmental activities, or to help the manufacturing function in controlling a plant's operations. Other types of information systems include transaction processing systems, which simply record the routine transactions needed to conduct business such as payroll, shipping, or sales orders; and office automation systems, whose purpose is to increase the productivity of office workers and include such systems as word processing, electronic mail, and digital filing (Turban, Mclean & Wetherbee, 2002). Ideally, the various types of information systems in an organization are interconnected to allow for information sharing (Alter, 1999; 2001). What distinguishes a management information system from an information system is whether it is applied to support managerial as opposed to operational activities (Baltzan, 2011).

1.3.2 Information Systems Academic Programs
As a discipline of study, information systems has also been described as the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data (McCleod, 1990; Petter et. al., 2008). The study of information systems bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within the computer science discipline (Lyytinen & Newman, 2008; Popova & Sharpanskykh, 2010). Before the concept of management information systems was created, computer scientists were just programmers creating applications for science and math calculations (Harris, 2009). As computer usage evolved in the fields of business and data management, software applications were needed to process nonscientific data. A field of study to bridge the gap between computer programmers and the business world to create information-based applications for business and networks was needed thus, MIS was born (Curtis, 1995; Laudon & Laudon, 2004). Today a large majority of Information Systems programs within universities are located in business schools with different names such as information systems, management information systems, computer information systems, business information systems, or business information technology. Information systems related degree programs combine business and computing topics, except that the emphasis between technical and organizational issues vary from one program to the next.

1.3.3 Information Systems Careers
A career in information systems is an exceptionally rich one with many different possible career paths to choose from. Table 1 below shows possible career paths for a majority of IS specializations, followed by brief descriptions for each career path.

Table 1: Information systems career paths
1 Systems Analyst/Designer 10 Information Technology Trainer
2 Systems Designer 11 E-Commerce Business Analyst
3 Systems Administrator 12 Network Administrator/Analyst
4 Information Systems Consultant 13 Network Engineer
5 Technical Support Specialist 14 Systems Programmer
6 Information Technology Specialist 15 Applications Developer
7 Database Administrator/Specialist 16 Web/E-Commerce System Developer
8 Information Security Specialist 17 IT Project Manager
9 End-User Support Analyst 18 Chief Information Officer
Sources: (Panko, 2008); (Westfall, 2012); (Wilkerson, 2012)

1.3.3.1 Systems Analyst
According to Wikipedia, systems analysts research problems, plan solutions, recommend software and systems, and coordinate systems development to meet business and other requirements. They are familiar with a variety of programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms. Because they are responsible for writing user requests into technical specifications, systems analysts are the liaison between vendors and information technology professionals. In addition, they may be responsible for developing cost analysis, design considerations, and indicative time-lines.

1.3.3.2 Systems Designer
Systems designers create detailed design documentation for the development and integration of computer systems to meet the needs of business. They work with systems analysts on the feasibility of a conceptual design by taking technical specifications prepared by the analyst and designing system components to meet set requirements; they draw up detailed design documentation including charts and diagrams that indicate the various components involved in the development or integration process; they prepare instructions for programmer implementation; they liaise with other team members (i.e. analysts and programmers) to ensure functionality according to systems specifications; they develop solutions as problems or issues arise in the project; and they design monitoring and performance measurement processes.

1.3.3.3 Systems Administrator
A Systems Administrators is responsible for maintaining the computer systems of a company. Server management is a primary responsibility. A Systems Administrator would be responsible for installing, maintaining and upgrading servers.

1.3.3.4 Information Systems Consultant
Information Systems Consultants (also known as Business Systems Specialist, Computer Specialist, Informatics Consultant, Information Specialist, Information Technology Specialist, Management Information Systems Consultant, and Systems Analyst) analyze, design and develop information systems business solutions and provide advice on a wide range of information systems issues.

1.3.3.5 Technical Support Specialist
The technical support specialist deals with the details of troubleshooting and problem solving, using specialized technical knowledge to provide computer support. The most common problems that technical specialists address are: connectivity (e.g. when the user cannot reach data or gain access to it); missing data (e.g. when data cannot be found); slow performance (e.g. when excessive amounts of users are slowing down the system); overload (e.g. due to lack of space on a machine for data); or program problems (e.g. when the program is not running efficiently.

1.3.3.6 Information Technology Specialist
An information technology (IT) specialist applies technical expertise to the implementation, monitoring, or maintenance of IT systems. IT Specialists typically focus on a specific computer network, database, or systems administration function. Specialty areas include network analysis, system administration, security and information assurance, IT audit, database administration, and web administration, among others.

1.3.3.7 Database Administrators
Database Administrators (DBA) use database software to store and manage information. They set up database systems and are responsible for making sure those systems operate efficiently. They make sure that data are available to users and are secure from unauthorized access. According to Wikipedia, a database administrator is a person responsible for the installation, configuration, upgrade, administration, monitoring and maintenance of databases in an organization. The role includes the development and design of database strategies, system monitoring and improving database performance and capacity, and planning for future expansion requirements. They may also plan, co-ordinate and implement security measures to safeguard the database.

1.3.3.8 Information Security Specialist
Information Security Specialists help individuals and organizations share and store information through computer networks and systems, the Internet, and computer databases. They plan, coordinate, and maintain an organization's information security. They educate users on computer security, install security software, monitor networks for security breaches, respond to cyber attacks, and, in some cases, gather data and evidence to be used in prosecuting cyber crime.

1.3.3.9 End-User Support Analyst
End-User Support Analysts are responsible for technology support of desktop operating systems, applications software, local area networking, e-mail and video conferencing systems, for use by endusers. They are responsible for analyzing and resolving computer hardware, software, and local area network problems using standard troubleshooting methods and diagnostics tools. They respond to enduser support calls and technical emergencies and escalate support issues to the support center when necessary. They consult with users and perform assessments to determine user needs and systems requirements. They are responsible for developing training programs and manuals and for conducting individual and group trainings for systems users.

1.3.3.10 Information Technology Trainer
Information technology trainers may teach IT administrative support staff or an organization's nontechnical business users how to operate, configure, and maintain new technology. They can be employed either as in-house staff, as part of the IT department, or by a technology vendor.

1.3.3.11 Network Administrator/Analyst
According to Wikipedia, a network administrator (also known as network analyst or network engineer) is a person responsible for the maintenance of computer hardware and software that comprises a computer network, which includes deploying, configuring, maintaining and monitoring active data network or converged infrastructure environments and related network equipment. The network administrator will concentrate on the overall integrity of the network, server deployment, security, and ensuring that the network connectivity throughout a company's LAN/WAN infrastructure is at par with technical considerations at the network level of an organization's hierarchy. Depending on the company, the Network Administrator may also design and deploy networks.

1.3.3.12 Network Engineer
A Network Engineer is involved in the design and maintenance of both the hardware and software necessary for a computer network. They are high level technical analysts with a specialty in Local Area Networks (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WANs).

1.3.3.13 Systems Programmer
The systems programmer installs, customizes and maintains the operating systems and also installs or upgrades products that run on the systems. The systems programmer performs such tasks as planning hardware and software systems upgrades and changes in configuration; training systems operators and applications programmers; automating operations; capacity planning; running installation jobs and scripts; performing installation-specific customization tasks; integration and testing new products with existing applications and user procedures; and system-wide performance tuning to meet required levels of service.

1.3.3.14 Applications Developer
Applications developers translate software requirements into workable programming code and maintain and develop programs for use in business. Most will specialize in a specific development field, such as computer games or e-commerce, and will have in-depth knowledge of at least one computer language.

1.3.3.15 E-Commerce Business Analyst
E-commerce business analysts aim to increase the efficiency of a company's online sales process by doing a cost-benefit analysis of projects. They identify, analyze and understand the e-commerce needs and requirements of companies. Since their work involves interaction and coordination with numerous departments, it is important that they have good teamwork and leadership skills.

1.3.3.16 Web Developer/Designer
Web Developers/Designers develop new Web applications through packaged and customized applications; they create company-wide Intranet; they maintain and enhance existing Web applications and ascertain that internal systems are integrated; they perform complete testing of Web applications units and systems; they conduct user acceptance testing; they design and implement user-driven templates, databases and interfaces for ease of use; they develop database-driven Web interfaces for rapid, real-time information sharing; and they develop external Web portals allowing users to input and retrieve accurate information.

1.3.3.17 IT Project Manager
A Project Manager is responsible for managing the resources of large projects. For Technical Careers, this can mean managing large Software Development projects, Networking projects, IT installations or conversions, or any other function where business and technology needs have to be managed and resources have to be coordinated.