Lakhasly

United Kingdom of Great Britain as a Superpower 1.2.1.It also included New South Wales, a penal colony on the Australian continent that was established in 1788 as a "dumping ground" for British convicts.(Lloyd) In addition, Britain maintained a colony in Sierra Leone, several trade ports in West Africa, and many colonies in the West Indies, notably Barbados and Jamaica. For strategic reasons, it had also taken the Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1795, right in the middle of the French Revolutionary Wars. India, a prestigious part of Britain's Empire, experienced expansion through wars and annexations, acquiring almost two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent by 1850. Britain significantly expanded its territory in Africa and Southeast Asia, including Egypt, Kenya, Uganda, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and the Afrikaner republics of southern Africa. These colonies were mostly insignificant economically, while in Southeast Asia, Britain acquired the Malay Peninsula, North Borneo, and Burma. The author uses historical events and examples to support their arguments, making the text assertive, well structured, and coherent, providing a clear understanding of the emergence of Great Powers and the role of Britain in the expansion of its empire during the 18th and 19th centuriry (Lloyd ) 1.2.3.British Empire through The Industrial Revolution An important factor in the development of the British Empire was the Industrial Revolution, a revolutionary era of scientific advancements and social upheavals that occurred during the 18th and the 19th century. During this remarkable time, traditional agricultural cultures gave way to industrialized countries, with Britain setting the standard as an industrial superpower. Britain had the largest colonial possessions in the world, produced two-thirds of world output of coal and one half of world production of cotton textiles and iron, and pursued an armed policy of forcing free trade on other countries. The Industrial Revolution in Britain between 1770 and 1860 is traditionally seen as being largely the result of the British imposing a policy of strict free trade on its colonial possessions such as India. The Industrial Revolution changed the balance of power within Britain, with London being the center of population and political power, and Bristol and Norwich being the next largest towns. The centers of traditional woolen cloth production in the southwest and around Norwich were replaced by the factory industry in Yorkshire. The Industrial Revolution in Britain was a series of revolutions with different natures and mechanisms that occurred simultaneously in the years 1760 to 1860. The traditional view of the Industrial Revolution emphasizes the revolutionary nature of the period, while modern views emphasize that the events of 1760 to 1860 were merely an evolution from what had come before. Fig.1. Cotton Consumption 1760-1850 By the 1830s, cotton accounted for 20% of British imports and 50% of exports, with the industry growing from 0% to 8% of GNP by 1812, driven by a dramatic price drop Furthermore the iron and steel industry experienced significant growth during the Industrial Revolution, with production in Britain increasing from 28,000 tons in 1750 to 250,000 tons by 1805. This growth was attributed to technical changes, such as the production of cast iron, wrought iron, and red-hot lumps. Pre-industrial furnaces used charcoal from wood, requiring large wood supplies for each ton of iron produced. Fig.02. Three main forms can be used to manufacture iron. In summary, the Industrial Revolution is a pivotal moment in human history and had a significant impact on the development of the British Empire. The revolution that brought about worldwide supremacy, economic reforms, and technical improvements were crucial in propelling Britain to the forefront of international affairs. The British Empire achieved unparalleled riches, power, and influence employing the growth of industries, the extension of trade networks, and the usage of colonial resources. (Clark) Naval Supremacy (Royal Navy The Royal Navy is the naval military organization of the United Kingdom, responsible for national defense at sea, shipping protection, and international military agreements. Established by Alfred the Great of Wessex, naval activity was initially local and temporary until the 13th century. Under Elizabeth I, the navy became England's major defense, and how the British Empire was extended globally. During the 18th century, the Royal Navy fought against the French Navy for maritime supremacy, leading Britain to victory in four wars. The Royal Navy helped enforce the Pax Britannica, a period of relative peace between major European states. ("Royal Navy |Policy responses included generous unemployment benefits and collective bargaining institutions, reducing wage flexibility, and raising the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate (NAIRU) by 4 percentage points above pre-1913 levels.Eisenhower believed that military intervention against Egypt for the Suez Canal was unnecessary in exchange for the Soviet Union's harsh repression of the Hungarian revolution.

United Kingdom of Great Britain as a Superpower
1.2.1. The British Empire Through Colonialism and Imperialism
The fight for global dominance by the British Empire was characterized by colonialism and imperialism, those two concepts had profound impacts on both the British Empire and the colonized populations, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to shape global dynamics today.
The takeover of someone else's land for the exclusive use of another nation is known as colonization.In contrast, imperialism is the use of force military, economic, and political to expand a nation's area of influence by gaining control over foreign lands.
Although the terms are frequently used synonymously, there are some significant differences.
In contrast to imperialism, which can refer to both physical occupancy and economic dominance, colonization usually refers to the physical occupation of a country.
In the early modern era, several European countries relied on colonization and imperialism to grow their empires such as France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Portugal were dominating the majority of Africa and Asia at the beginning of the 20th century . (“British Colonialism and Imperialism Explained”)
Throughout world history, the British Empire was one of the biggest. It ruled about a third of the world's land area and 25% of its people at its height in the 19th century.

John Cabot's discoveries in the late 15th century marked the beginning of British colonialism. But it wasn't until Jamestown was founded in 1607 at the beginning of the 17th century that England established a permanent colony. The main driving force behind these early expeditions was a desire for reputation and prosperity. Other factors, though, became relevant as the British Empire grew, such as the aim of gaining a tactical edge over other European nations or the desire to propagate Christianity.
Imperialism has a significant impact on both colonized and colonizing countries. Indigenous peoples experienced frequent discrimination, exploitation, and displacement in the colonies. as well as fostering a belief in the right to govern over other peoples and a sense of national superiority. A desire for power and wealth drove Britain's early adventures, Particularly interested in cash crops and commodities like sugar, tobacco, and spices was the British monarchy. After then, these goods were profitably traded in European markets
British colonialism was motivated not only by economic considerations but also by political and social ones. Since the 17th century, when representative democracy was first established in Britain, people there have thought that it is the ideal system of governance. They argued that all countries would gain if democracy could be extended globally.
Comparably, British culture thought that its morals what they considered to be "right" and "wrong" were superior to those of any other country in the globe. They therefore believed that assimilating British culture would be beneficial to all of humanity. The British people referred to this assumption of imposing this culture on everyone else as the "White Man's Burden." As well as, in the 19th century, British imperialism was also influenced by social Darwinism, which held that certain races were superior than others. This ideology used the claim that other peoples were "racially inferior" to support Britain's right to rule over them.(33)
1.2.2 British Colonial Empire
Despite losing thirteen of its colonies in North America in the early 1780s, Britain still maintained Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland among its possessions in North America. It also included New South Wales, a penal colony on the Australian continent that was established in 1788 as a "dumping ground" for British convicts.(Lloyd)
In addition, Britain maintained a colony in Sierra Leone, several trade ports in West Africa, and many colonies in the West Indies, notably Barbados and Jamaica. For strategic reasons, it had also taken the Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1795, right in the middle of the French Revolutionary Wars. India, a prestigious part of Britain's Empire, experienced expansion through wars and annexations, acquiring almost two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent by 1850.
Britain significantly expanded its territory in Africa and Southeast Asia, including Egypt, Kenya, Uganda, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and the Afrikaner republics of southern Africa. These colonies were mostly insignificant economically, while in Southeast Asia, Britain acquired the Malay Peninsula, North Borneo, and Burma. The author uses historical events and examples to support their arguments, making the text assertive,
well structured, and coherent, providing a clear understanding of the emergence of Great Powers and the role of Britain in the expansion of its empire during the 18th and 19th centuriry (Lloyd )
1.2.3.British Empire through The Industrial Revolution
An important factor in the development of the British Empire was the Industrial Revolution, a revolutionary era of scientific advancements and social upheavals that occurred during the 18th and the 19th century. During this remarkable time, traditional agricultural cultures gave way to industrialized countries, with Britain setting the standard as an industrial superpower.
Britain had the largest colonial possessions in the world, produced two-thirds of world output of coal and one half of world production of cotton textiles and iron, and pursued an armed policy of forcing free trade on other countries. The Industrial Revolution in Britain between 1770 and 1860 is traditionally seen as being largely the result of the British imposing a policy of strict free trade on its colonial possessions such as India. The Industrial Revolution changed the balance of power within Britain, with London being the center of population and political power, and Bristol and Norwich being the next largest towns. The centers of traditional woolen cloth production in the southwest and around Norwich were replaced by the factory industry in Yorkshire.
The Industrial Revolution in Britain was a series of revolutions with different natures and mechanisms that occurred simultaneously in the years 1760 to 1860. The traditional view of the Industrial Revolution emphasizes the revolutionary nature of the period, while modern views emphasize that the events of 1760 to 1860 were merely an evolution from what had come before.

Fig.1. Cotton Consumption 1760-1850
By the 1830s, cotton accounted for 20% of British imports and 50% of exports, with the industry growing from 0% to 8% of GNP by 1812, driven by a dramatic price drop
Furthermore the iron and steel industry experienced significant growth during the Industrial Revolution, with production in Britain increasing from 28,000 tons in 1750 to 250,000 tons by 1805. This growth was attributed to technical changes, such as the production of cast iron, wrought iron, and red-hot lumps. Pre-industrial furnaces used charcoal from wood, requiring large wood supplies for each ton of iron produced.

Fig.02. Three main forms can be used to manufacture iron.

In summary, the Industrial Revolution is a pivotal moment in human history and had a significant impact on the development of the British Empire. The revolution that brought about worldwide supremacy, economic reforms, and technical improvements were crucial in propelling Britain to the forefront of international affairs. The British Empire achieved unparalleled riches, power, and influence employing the growth of industries, the extension of trade networks, and the usage of colonial resources. (Clark)
Naval Supremacy (Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval military organization of the United Kingdom, responsible for national defense at sea, shipping protection, and international military agreements. Established by Alfred the Great of Wessex, naval activity was initially local and temporary until the 13th century. Under Elizabeth I, the navy became England's major defense, and how the British Empire was extended globally. During the 18th century, the Royal Navy fought against the French Navy for maritime supremacy, leading Britain to victory in four wars. The Royal Navy helped enforce the Pax Britannica, a period of relative peace between major European states. (“Royal Navy | History, Ships, & Battles | Britannica”)
The period from 1884 to 1914 was marked by a shift in threat from abroad, with Germany becoming the bigger threat. This led to the two-power standard with the Naval Defence Act of 1889, which stated that the British Navy should be bigger than or equal to the second and third-largest navies in the world combined. France had been the major European rival to Great Britain for centuries, and it was feared that they would make an ally out of Russia, another strong world power. However, Germany became the bigger threat, as it was adept at utilizing technological advances more efficiently than Great Britain.
The naval scare of 1884 caused public interest in the Royal Navy to soar, as it showed that the Royal Navy was not as invincible as previously believed. The discussion of complacency in the Royal Navy shows that being a superior naval force was something the British people took for granted before the naval scare of 1884. The period from 1884 to 1914 was characterized by simultaneous and gradual changes.
With France no longer functioning as the main threat, some scholars argued that British naval superiority was important for maintaining British national identity. Germany was more similar to Great Britain than France had been, with a monarchy and a protestant religion. One element that distinguished these two nations was the presence of British naval superiority. Germany began to threaten the Royal Navy through the German Naval Laws, leading to more friction between the nations and a naval arms race between Germany and Great Britain. (Kristensen 5,6,7,8)
1.3 United Kingdom as a Subordinate Power
According to Ibn Khaldun; history is a cyclical process in which sovereign powers emerge, get stronger, wane, and eventually fall under the control of other sovereign powers. as well as he described the fall of states, monarchies, nations, and civilizations as a normal process, stating that they are like people in that they are born, grow, die, and then others take over and experience the same outcomes. This cycle repeats itself repeatedly. (Önder and Ulaşan 234), and that is exactly what was named by the cyclical theory which many civilizations were passed through.
Throughout history, there has been a recurrent theme of great empires falling. Time, internal deterioration, and outside pressures have ultimately brought down even the mightiest and most seemingly unbeatable civilizations. An excellent illustration of this tendency is the British Empire, which was once the biggest and most powerful empire in history. The British Empire, at its height, included a wide range of cultures, regions, and resources, covering a fifth of the planet's land area. However, the British Empire started to crumble in the middle of the 20th century, and in the 1960s, it finally broke up into separate parts despite its amazing strength and reach as a result of different reasons and factors.
British Economic Factors :
One of the primary economic factors that hastened the decline of the British Empire was economic exhaustion due to participation in costly wars The interwar period is the story of how this transformation came about, and it is the story of Britain's loss of economic preeminence((Floud)
Britain's position in the world economy before World War I was heavily influenced by globalization. As the leading capital exporter, Britain accounted for 27% of manufactured exports and had a higher share of trade in GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP). However, WWI brought the liberal economic order to an abrupt halt, leading to increased trade costs and a decrease in GDP. Countries like Japan and the United States replaced Britain in international markets, resulting in a permanent loss of world market share.
In addition to that WWII led to high inflation and a significant increase in national In addition to that WWI led to high inflation and a significant increase in national debt GDP ratio increased from 110% to 240% After WW2 which made Britain compelled to sell all of its overseas assets in order to raise money for the war effort. The most prominent one was Courtauld's American Viscose Corporation, which was only sold for half of its actual worth at a firesale. due to the war effort and lend-lease agreements (borrowing munitions from America during the war), the British had incurred enormous debts to the United States
(“Impact of WW2 on the British Empire - History: AQA a Level the British Empire”) as well as it had impacted economic growth through interest rates, taxes, investment, and Total factor productivity (TFP). Trade union membership doubled, intensifying militancy. Policy responses included generous unemployment benefits and collective bargaining institutions, reducing wage flexibility, and raising the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate (NAIRU) by 4 percentage points above pre-1913 levels. (Crafts)
To sum up, the debt of the British Empire had a significant effect on the economy of that country. It resulted in higher borrowing and interest payments, depreciation of the currency and inflation, less fiscal leeway, and a change in the balance of power in the world economy. In the end, these elements played a part in the British Empire's demise.
British Political Factors :
A number of political developments that surfaced in the years following World War II had an impact on the complicated process of the British Empire's demise. This drop was caused by a number of significant incidents and choices.
Decolonization and the Decline of British Hegemony:
The process of establishing colonies' independence from their colonial nation is known as decolonization. It might happen gradually or violently, based on how the colonial state resists. Following World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States of America opposed European nations. Colonies including Korea, the Philippines, India, Palestine, Egypt, and Hong Kong eventually dissolved (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica) and Britain was unable to maintain control over its colonies, which led to the country's collapse in power and influence throughout the world in the 20th century..
The end of British rule in India, and South East Asia, was driven by necessity rather than choice. Britain lacked the necessary resources to maintain its imperial burden, and sought to retain strategic assets in the region in an other hand The Second World War had a major impact on decolonization in Africa, leading to increased political consciousness and anti-colonial sentiment. Britain's primary motivations for retaining its colonies were economic recovery and fear of communism, but these factors eventually forced it to begin decolonization by 1960. Despite this, London still sought to maintain an informal imperial relationship through economic ties and defence treaties. (Robb)
The Suez crise
The 1956 Suez Crisis; was the final scene of the United Kingdom of Great Britain Series of the Empire that the sun never set in which Israel, France, and Britain invaded Egypt to retake control of the Suez Canal, that is considered to be one of the most important events in British history since 1945. Its resulted in Britain being recognized as a "second tier" world power and pointed out its minimizing standing. It threatened Britain's important diplomatic ties with Commonwealth countries and the US-UK "special" relationship, while globally it further confused Middle East affairs and created severe political reactions and economic collapse in Britain. (Imperial War Museum)
Suez Crisis showed that Britain could no longer rely on gunboat diplomacy and had lost international prestige. The US forced Britain and France to withdraw by withholding economic aid, demonstrating the dominance of economic power over military power. The special relationship between the US and Britain was key, as Britain had become the world's largest debtor while the US was the world's largest creditor after the Second World War (Rystad 22 )
Reluctantly, British Prime Minister Anthony Eden agreed to a truce suggested by the UN since he had few options. In order to put an end to the war, the UN sent United Nation Emergency Force (UNEF) of troops into Egypt on November 7, 1956, in accordance with Resolution 1001. In just two days, Britain had suffered from humiliation, as had Eden himself.
The crisis has significantly affected Britain's foreign policy relations. Eisenhower believed that military intervention against Egypt for the Suez Canal was unnecessary in exchange for the Soviet Union's harsh repression of the Hungarian revolution. Many of Great Britain's newly independent former colonies rejected the triple aggression against Egypt however Australia was the only country that supported Britain,as well as Pakistan threatened to withdraw from the Commonwealth moreover Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, denounced "British imperialism", threatened to launch a missile strike on London and send soldiers to Egypt.Public Opinion on the conflict was divided inside Britain.
The Labour opposition was extremely hostile to the Conservative government, and there was even internal conflict within the party. The British public originally supported the government's intervention in Suez, but after the conflict's humiliating effects, support for the government quickly waned. Numerous civil servants resigned in protest, and anti-war demonstrations spread across the country.
Through its measures in November 1956, Britain really succeeded in guaranteeing what it had intended to avoid. With backing from the US and the UN, Egypt was able to keep control of the canal. Throughout the operations, the Egyptians sank ships, which prevented movement via the canal for five months. Shortages occurred as a result of British access to oil and petrol being restricted. December 1956 saw the implementation of gasoline rationing, which lasted until May 1957. Less than two years after taking office as prime minister, Eden resigned in January 1957 due to intense domestic pressure and poor health
As well as The Suez Crisis accelerated the process of decolonization in Britain, as external and strategic factors forced them to decolonize sooner than expected. Economic factors were predominant, but external and strategic factors also played a role, as the Soviet Union and the Cold War provided leverage for nationalists to challenge British rule. (Imperial War Museum) , moreover as an external factors there was a pressure from the U.N., destabilisation in Africa, African nationalism, and Cold War rivalry. These factors made Britain realise that the cost of keeping the colonies outweighed their strategic value, and sped up the process of decolonisation.( (Rystad p.50 )